# Homeric Greek, Lessons VI to X Pharr I: Letters, Nouns, Verbs Source: https://1732studios.com/courses/grc/2. Data: https://1732studios.com/courses/grc/2.json. ## Lesson VI: The Second Declension ### The second declension βουλή and the nouns like it belong to the first declension. This lesson adds the second declension. Its model is θῡμός, heart or spirit. Singular: nominative θῡμός, genitive θῡμοῦ, dative θῡμῷ, accusative θῡμόν, vocative θῡμέ. Plural: θῡμοί, θῡμῶν, θῡμοῖσι, θῡμούς. An ο is in almost every form. It marks the second declension, as α and η mark the first. ### Gender Every Greek noun has a gender: masculine, feminine or neuter. The gender belongs to the noun, like its spelling. The word list shows the gender with a short word after the noun. ὁ means masculine, as in θεός, god. ἡ means feminine, as in νοῦσος, plague. τό means neuter, as in ἔργον, deed. νοῦσος is feminine but ends in ος, like the masculine θεός. The nominative ending does not always show the gender. The word list does. In a neuter noun the nominative, the accusative and the vocative are the same: ἔργον. In the plural all three are ἔργα. ### Agreement An adjective has the same gender, number and case as its noun. This is called agreement. Number means singular, dual or plural. So an adjective has a form for each gender. κᾱλός, good, is masculine. κᾱλή is feminine. κᾱλόν is neuter. The word list gives all three: κᾱλός, ή, όν. The masculine forms follow θῡμός, the feminine forms follow βουλή, and the neuter forms follow ἔργον. κᾱλοῦ ἔργου, of a good deed. κᾱλὰς βουλάς, good plans, as the object. φίλος, η, ον, dear, follows the same pattern. Agreement does not mean the same ending. In νοῦσος κακή, an evil plague, the noun is feminine but has a second-declension ending. The adjective has the feminine form κακή. It follows the gender, not the ending. **1** ἀγλαὰ ἄποινα φέρουσιν Ἀχαιοὶ εἰς στρατόν. The Achaeans bring splendid ransoms to the camp. **2** φέρομεν ἀπερείσι’ ἄποινα ἀνὰ στρατὸν Ἀχαιῶν. We bring countless ransoms throughout the camp of the Achaeans. **3** θεὸς τεύχει πολλοὺς Ἀχαιοὺς ἐλώρια οἰωνοῖσιν. The god makes many Achaeans a prey for the birds. **4** ἦσαν Ἀχαιοὶ κακοί; Were the Achaeans cowardly? **5** οὐκ ἦσαν κακοί, κᾱλοὶ δέ. νοῦσος κακὴ ὀλέκει λᾱὸν κᾱλόν. They were not cowardly, but noble. A wicked plague destroys the noble host. **6** Ἀχαιοὶ πέμπουσιν ἄποινα μῡρί’ εἰς πάτρην. The Achaeans send countless ransoms to their fatherland. **7** θεὸς βαίνει ἐς στρατόν, ὀλέκει δὲ λᾱὸν Ἀχαιῶν. The god goes to the camp, and destroys the host of the Achaeans. **8** τίς ἀτιμάζει θεοὺς κᾱλούς; Who dishonors the noble gods? **9** κακοὶ λᾱοὶ ἀτιμάζουσι θεοὺς πάτρης. Wicked peoples dishonor the gods of their fatherland. **10** θεὸς πέμπει νοῦσον κακὴν ἀνὰ στρατὸν Ἀχαιῶν, οὐ γὰρ τελείουσι βουλὴν θεῶν πάτρης. The god sends an evil plague throughout the camp of the Achaeans, for they do not fulfill the will of the gods of their fatherland. **11** βαίνει ἐπὶ θάλασσαν δεινὴν καὶ τεύχει πυρὰς πολλὰς ἀνὰ στρατὸν Ἀχαιῶν. He goes to the terrible sea and makes many pyres throughout the camp of the Achaeans. **12** ἔχουσιν ἀπερείσι’ ἄποινα Ἀχαιῶν ἐνὶ στρατῷ. They have countless ransoms of the Achaeans in the camp. **13** βουλὴ στρατοῦ οὐχ ἀνδάνει θῡμῷ θεοῦ. The plan of the army is not pleasing to the soul of the god. **14** λᾱὸς Κίλλης φίλος ἦν ψῡχῇ θεᾶς θαλάσσης. The host of Cilla was dear to the soul of the goddess of the sea. **15** οὐκ ἀείδομεν κᾱλὰς βουλὰς θεῶν στρατῷ, οὐ γὰρ ἀνδάνει Ἀχαιοῖσι θῡμῷ. We do not sing the fair plans of the gods to the army, for it is not pleasing to the Achaeans in soul. **16** δεινὴ κλαγγὴ θαλάσσης ἀνδάνει θεᾷ θῡμῷ. The terrible roar of the sea is pleasing to the goddess in (her) soul. **17** φέρομεν ἀγλαὰ ἄποινα πολλὰ στρατῷ Ἀχαιῶν. We bring many splendid ransoms to the army of the Achaeans. **18** θεὸς οὐκ ὀλέκει λᾱὸν Ἀχαιῶν, οὐ γὰρ ἀτιμάζουσι θεοὺς πάτρης. The god does not destroy the host of the Achaeans, for they do not dishonor the gods of (their) fatherland. **19** νοῦσος κακὴ τεύχει μῡρίους Ἀχαιοὺς ἐλώρια πολλοῖσιν οἰωνοῖσιν. The evil plague makes countless Achaeans a booty (use plural) for many birds. **20** λᾱὸς Ἀχαιῶν πέμπει ἀγλαὰ μῡρία ἄποινα θεᾷ θαλάσσης ἐν Κίλλῃ. The people of the Achaeans send countless shining ransoms to the goddess of the sea in Cilla. **21** Ἀχαιοὶ βαίνουσιν ἐπὶ θάλασσαν καὶ ἀείδουσιν, κλαγγὴ δὲ οὐκ ἀνδάνει θεᾷ θῡμῷ. The Achaeans go to the sea and sing, but the noise is not pleasing to the goddess in (her) soul. **22** νοῦσος ὀλέκει λᾱόν, ἀτιμάζουσι γὰρ θεὸν Χρύσης. The plague destroys the people, for they dishonor the god of Chrysa. **23** οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρίʼ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγεʼ ἔθηκε, the accursed wrath, that brought the Achaeans countless woes, **24** πολλὰς δʼ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν and hurled down to Hades many mighty souls **25** ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν of heroes, and made their bodies prey for dogs **26** οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δʼ ἐτελείετο βουλή, and for all birds, and the will of Zeus was being fulfilled, ``` §678. θῡμός, οῦ, ὁ spirit, life, soul. κακὸς πόλεμος, ου, ὁ evil war. (θῡμο-) (κακο- πολεμο-) SINGULAR N. θῡμός κακὸς πόλεμος G. θῡμοῦ, οῖο [όο] κακοῦ πολέμου, οῖο, οιο [όο, οο] D. θῡμῷ κακῷ πολέμῳ A. θῡμόν κακὸν πόλεμον V. θῡμέ κακὲ πόλεμε DUAL N. A. V. θῡμώ κακὼ πολέμω G. D. θῡμοῖιν κακοῖιν πολέμοιιν PLURAL N. V. θῡμοί κακοὶ πόλεμοι G. θῡμῶν κακῶν πολέμων D. θῡμοῖσι, οῖς κακοῖσι πολέμοισι, οῖς οις A. θῡμούς κακοὺς πολέμους ``` ``` §679. κᾱλὸν ἔργον, ου, τό noble deed. κακὴ νοῦσος, ου, ἡ destructive plague. (κᾱλο- ϝεργο-) (κακᾱ- νουσο-) SINGULAR N. κᾱλὸν ἔργον κακὴ νοῦσος G. κᾱλοῦ ἔργου, οῖο, οιο [όο, οο] κακῆς νούσου, οιο [οο] D. κᾱλῷ ἔργῳ κακῇ νούσῳ A. κᾱλὸν ἔργον κακὴν νοῦσον V. κᾱλὸν ἔργον κακὴ νοῦσε DUAL N. A. V. κᾱλὼ ἔργω κακᾱ̀ νούσω G. D. κᾱλοῖιν ἔργοιιν κακῆιν νούσοιιν PLURAL N. V. κᾱλὰ ἔργα κακαὶ νοῦσοι G. κᾱλῶν ἔργων κακᾱ́ων [έων, ῶν] νούσων D. κᾱλοῖσι ἔργοισι, οῖς, οις κακῇσι νούσοισι, ῇς οις A. κᾱλὰ ἔργα κακὰς νούσους ``` ``` §717. Adjectives Adjectives have three declensions, as nouns, and follow the same general rules. ``` ``` §718. With respect to form they may be divided into four classes: 1) Adjectives of the first and second (vowel) declensions. 2) Adjectives of the second declension (mostly compounds). 3) Adjectives of the first and third declensions. 4) Adjectives of the third (consonant) declension. ``` ``` §719. The form of the adjective which appears in the vocabulary is the nominative singular of all genders (except in the case of a very few of only one gender, in which case the nominative and genitive singular are given). ``` ``` §720. Adjectives of the first and second declensions have three endings (ος, η, ον) in the nominative singular, for the three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, respectively. ``` ``` §721. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS κᾱλός, ή, όν beautiful, noble (κᾱλο-, κᾱλᾱ-, κᾱλο-) SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. N. κᾱλός κᾱλή κᾱλόν G. κᾱλοῦ, οῖο [όο] κᾱλῆς κᾱλοῦ, οῖο [όο] D. κᾱλῷ κᾱλῇ κᾱλῷ A. κᾱλόν κᾱλήν κᾱλόν V. κᾱλέ κᾱλή κᾱλόν DUAL N. A. V. κᾱλώ κᾱλᾱ́ κᾱλώ G. D. κᾱλοῖιν κᾱλῆιν κᾱλοῖιν PLURAL N. V. κᾱλοί κᾱλαί κᾱλά G. κᾱλῶν κᾱλᾱ́ων [έων, ῶν] κᾱλῶν D. κᾱλοῖσι, οῖς κᾱλῇσι, ῇς κᾱλοῖσι, οῖς A. κᾱλούς κᾱλᾱ́ς κᾱλά φίλος, η, ον dear, lovely, beloved (φιλο-, φιλᾱ-, φιλο-) SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. N. φίλος φίλη φίλον G. φίλου, οιο [οο] φίλης φίλου, οιο [οο] D. φίλῳ φίλῃ φίλῳ A. φίλον φίλην φίλον V. φίλε φίλη φίλον DUAL N. A. V. φίλω φίλᾱ φίλω G. D. φίλοιν φίλῃιν φίλοιν PLURAL N. V. φίλοι φίλαι φίλα G. φίλων φιλᾱ́ων [έων, ῶν] φίλων D. φίλοισι, οις φίλῃσι, ῃς φίλοισι, οις A. φίλους φίλᾱς φίλα NOTE. Superlatives (as ἄριστος, η, ον), participles in ος, η, ον and all words that have these three endings in the nominative singular are similarly declined. ``` ``` §1025. An adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case, but not always in form, since they may belong to different declensions, as νοῦσος κακή an evil plague, where νοῦσος, although feminine, is of the second declension and ends in -ος. This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and participles, as μῡρί’ ἄλγεα countless woes, πολλὰς δ’ ἰφθῑ́μους ψῡχὰς Ἄιδι προίαψεν and sent many valiant souls to Hades, διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε these two separated after they had quarreled, δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς godlike Achilles, ἦλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας he came to the swift ships, θεοὶ Ὀλύμπια δώματ’ ἔχοντες the gods who have Olympian homes. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | ἀγλαὰ | Bright, shining, splendid, from ἀγλαός | | ἄποινα | Ransom | | στρατόν | Army, encampment, host, from στρατός | | ἀπερείσι’ | Boundless, countless, immeasurable, from ἀ-περείσιος | | ἀνὰ | Adv., and prep. with gen., dat | | θεὸς | God, divinity | | κακοί | Bad, poor, ugly, from κακός | | κᾱλοὶ | Good, noble, handsome, from καλός | | νοῦσος | Plague, disease, pest | | λᾱὸν | People, host, soldiery, from λαός | | δεινὴν | Terrible, awful, dread, from δεινός | | θῡμῷ | Heart, soul, spirit, from θυμός | | φίλος | Dear, darling, lovely | ## Lesson VII: Review ### Review of the first six lessons This lesson teaches nothing new. It reviews the first six lessons before the next lessons add to them. You have learned three things. Nouns change their endings to show their case, in two declensions: βουλή and θῡμός. Adjectives agree with their nouns. Verb endings show who acts, as in λύετε. The word list repeats the words of those lessons. Learn them exactly. Every word in a later reading lesson is first given in a word list. **27** ἀείδομεν θεὰν θαλάσσης δεινῆς κλαγγῇ πολλῇ. We sing of the goddess of the terrible sea with much clamor. **28** οὐκ ἀτιμάζουσι θεούς. They do not dishonor the gods. **29** βουλαὶ Ἀχαιῶν οὐχ ἀνδάνουσι θεᾷ κᾱλῇ θῡμῷ. The plans of the Achaeans are not pleasing to the beautiful goddess in her soul. **30** βαίνει ἐκ στρατοῦ Ἀχαιῶν εἰς Κίλλαν καὶ φέρει ἀπερείσι’ ἄποινα θεῷ. He goes from the camp of the Achaeans to Cilla and brings countless ransoms to the god. **31** νοῦσος κακὴ βαίνει ἀνὰ στρατὸν καὶ τεύχει πολλοὺς Ἀχαιοὺς ἐλώρια οἰωνοῖσιν. An evil plague goes throughout the camp and makes many Achaeans a prey for the birds. **32** καὶ θεοὶ καὶ θεαὶ ὀλέκουσι λᾱὸν Ἀχαιῶν. Both gods and goddesses destroy the host of the Achaeans. **33** τίς Ἀχαιῶν ἔχει θῡμὸν κακόν; Who of the Achaeans has an evil heart? **34** ἦσαν πολλαὶ θεαὶ ἐνὶ θαλάσσῃ; Were there many goddesses in the sea? **35** καίει πυρὰς ἐπὶ θαλάσσῃ. He burns pyres by the sea. **36** λύετε στρατὸν Ἀχαιῶν. You break up the army of the Achaeans. **37** πάτρη ἐστὶ φίλη ψῡχῇ μῡρίων Ἀχαιῶν. The fatherland is dear to the soul of countless Achaeans. **38** τίς πέμπει στρατὸν ἐκ Κίλλης εἰς Χρύσην; Who sends the army from Cilla to Chrysa? **39** βουλὴ κακή ἐστιν, ἀνδάνει δὲ θεᾷ θῡμῷ. The plan is evil, but it is pleasing to the goddess in her soul. **40** τί ἀείδετε; What are you singing? **41** Ἀχαιοὶ ἀείδουσι κᾱλὴν θεὰν θαλάσσης δεινῆς. The Achaeans sing the beautiful goddess of the terrible sea. **42** οὐκ ἀτιμάζομεν θεούς, φίλοι γάρ εἰσιν ψῡχῇσι. We do not dishonor the gods, for they are dear to (our) souls. **43** βουλαὶ στρατοῦ ἀνδάνουσι θεᾷ κᾱλῷ θῡμῷ. The plans of the army are pleasing to the goddess in (her) noble soul. **44** πολλοὶ Ἀχαιοὶ βαίνουσιν ἐκ στρατοῦ καὶ φέρουσιν μῡρία καὶ ἀγλαὰ ἄποινα θεοῖσι. Many Achaeans are going from the encampment and are bringing countless glorious ransoms to the gods. **45** νοῦσος κακὴ ὀλέκει λᾱὸν καὶ τεύχει στρατὸν ἐλώρια μῡρίοισιν οἰωνοῖσιν. The evil plague destroys the people and makes the army a booty for countless birds. **46** οὐκ ἀείδομεν, οὐ γὰρ ἀνδάνει ψῡχῇ θεᾶς. We do not sing, for it is not pleasing to the soul of the goddess. **47** μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος The wrath of Peleus' son Achilles, sing, goddess, **48** οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρίʼ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγεʼ ἔθηκε, the accursed wrath, that brought the Achaeans countless woes, **49** πολλὰς δʼ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν and hurled down to Hades many mighty souls **50** ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν of heroes, and made their bodies prey for dogs **51** οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δʼ ἐτελείετο βουλή, and for all birds, and the will of Zeus was being fulfilled, ## Lesson VIII: Second Declension (continued) ### Pronouns A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or points to one: he, she, it, this, that, who. This lesson teaches four pronouns. It also teaches ἄλλος, other, which has the same endings. A pronoun has a form for each gender, like κᾱλός, κᾱλή, κᾱλόν. One rule is new. In the neuter these words end in ο, where κᾱλός has κᾱλόν: αὐτό and κεῖνο. The tables show the other differences. Read them closely. ### ὁ, ἡ, τό The most common pronoun is ὁ, ἡ, τό: masculine ὁ, feminine ἡ, neuter τό. In Homer it usually means this or that. It can also mean he, she or it, or who or which. Later Greek used it as the word for the. Pharr's English often translates it that way: τὸν στρατὸν, the army. Learn its forms well. They are everywhere. Masculine: ὁ, τοῦ, τῷ, τόν. Feminine: ἡ, τῆς, τῇ, τήν. Neuter: τό, τοῦ, τῷ, τό. Plural masculine: οἱ, τῶν, τοῖσι, τούς. Most masculine and neuter forms are the second-declension endings with τ in front. The feminine forms are like βουλή. ### αὐτός, ὅς, κεῖνος and ἄλλος αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό is an intensive pronoun. An intensive pronoun adds emphasis: self, or same. δῖος ἑκηβόλος αὐτὸς is the divine free-shooter himself. Its forms are αὐτός, αὐτοῦ, αὐτῷ, αὐτόν, and the feminine αὐτή. ὅς, ἥ, ὅ is a relative pronoun. A relative pronoun begins a group of words that describes a noun: the gods who have golden sceptres. There, who is a form of ὅς, ἥ, ὅ. Its plural is οἵ, αἵ, ἅ. ἐκεῖνος, η, ο is a demonstrative pronoun. A demonstrative pronoun points: that one, he, she, it. Pharr also prints it without the first ε: κεῖνος. ἄλλος, η, ο means other. It has the same endings as κεῖνος. **52** δῖος ἑκηβόλος αὐτὸς ἀείδει, ἀλλ’ οὐχ ἀνδάνει ἄλλοισι θεοῖσι θῡμῷ. The divine free-shooter himself sings, but it is not pleasing to the other gods in soul. **53** κεῖνοι Ἀχαιοὶ ἀτιμάζουσι τοὺς θεούς. Those Achaeans dishonor the gods. **54** ὁ ἑκηβόλος πέμπει νοῦσον κακὴν ἀνὰ στρατὸν Ἀχαιῶν καὶ κακῶς ὀλέκει κεῖνον λᾱόν, οὕνεκα τὸν ἀτιμάζουσιν. The free-shooter sends an evil plague up through the camp of the Achaeans and evilly destroys that people, because they dishonor him. **55** οὐκ ἀτιμάζομεν τοὺς θεούς, οἳ ἔχουσι σκῆπτρα χρύσεα. We do not dishonor the gods, who have golden sceptres. **56** ὁ ἑκηβόλος τε καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι θεοὶ φέρουσι χρύσεα σκῆπτρα κᾱλά. Both the free-shooter and the other gods carry beautiful golden sceptres. **57** τίς τεύχει τὰ σκῆπτρα χρύσεα τοῖσι θεοῖς θαλάσσης; Who makes the golden sceptres for the gods of the sea? **58** ἀείδει ἑκηβόλος αὐτὸς βουλὰς ἄλλων θεῶν τοῖσιν Ἀχαιοῖσιν; Does the free-shooter himself sing the plans of the other gods to the Achaeans? **59** εἰσὶν οἱ Ἀχαιοὶ κᾱλοί, οἳ ὀλέκουσι τὸν στρατὸν καίουσί τε τὰς πυράς; Are the Achaeans, who destroy the army and burn the funeral pyres, noble? **60** ἡ θεὰ τῆς δεινῆς θαλάσσης ἔχει τὸ σκῆπτρον χρύσεον. The goddess of the terrible sea has the golden sceptre. **61** ἐνὶ τῇ πάτρῃ εἰσὶν αἱ πυραί. The funeral pyres are in the fatherland. **62** τίς τεύχει τὸν στρατὸν ἐλώρια τοῖσιν οἰωνοῖσιν; Who makes the army a prey for the birds? **63** ἀείδει δῖος ἑκηβόλος αὐτὸς τὰς κᾱλὰς βουλὰς τῶν θεῶν; Does the divine free-shooter himself sing these noble plans of the gods? **64** τί οὐκ ἀνδάνει τοῖσιν ἄλλοισι θεοῖσιν, οἳ εἰσὶν ἐνὶ θαλάσσῃ; Why is it not pleasing to these other gods who are in the sea? **65** κεῖνος Ἀχαιὸς ἀτιμάζει κείνους θεοὺς πάτρης, οἳ ἔχουσι τὰ χρύσεα σκῆπτρα. That Achaean dishonors those gods of (his) fatherland who have these golden sceptres. **66** ὁ ἑκηβόλος πέμπει νούσους κακὰς πολλὰς ἀνὰ κεῖνον στρατὸν Ἀχαιῶν καὶ ὀλέκει μυρίους λᾱούς, οὕνεκα τὸν ἀτιμάζουσιν. This free-shooter sends many evil plagues up through that camp of the Achaeans and destroys countless people (plural), because they dishonor him. **67** τίς καίει κείνας πυρὰς Ἀχαιῶν ἐπὶ δεινῇ θαλάσσῃ; Who is burning those funeral pyres of the Achaeans by the terrible sea? **68** ὁ ἑκηβόλος τεύχει μῡρίους Ἀχαιοὺς ἐλώρια τοῖσιν οἰωνοῖσιν, οὕνεκα ἀτιμάζουσι τὰς κᾱλὰς θεὰς θαλάσσης. This free-shooter makes countless Achaeans a booty for the birds, because they dishonor these beautiful goddesses of the sea. **69** οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρίʼ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγεʼ ἔθηκε, the accursed wrath, that brought the Achaeans countless woes, **70** ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν of heroes, and made their bodies prey for dogs **71** οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δʼ ἐτελείετο βουλή, and for all birds, and the will of Zeus was being fulfilled, ``` §765. The most common pronoun, ὁ, ἡ, τό, used regularly as the definite article in later Greek, is usually employed as the demonstrative, but sometimes as a personal or as a relative pronoun in Homer. It is declined as follows: ὁ, ἡ, τό this, that; he, she, it; who, which, what SINGULAR N. ὁ ἡ τό G. τοῦ, τοῖο τῆς τοῦ, τοῖο D. τῷ τῇ τῷ A. τόν τήν τό DUAL N. A. τώ (τώ) τώ G. D. τοῖιν (τοῖιν) τοῖιν PLURAL N. οἱ (τοί) αἱ (ταί) τά G. τῶν τάων [τῶν] τῶν D. τοῖσι, τοῖς τῇσι, τῇς τοῖσι, τοῖς A. τούς τάς τά ``` ``` §766. The intensive pronoun is declined as follows: αὐτός, ή; ὁ self, same SINGULAR N. αὐτός αὐτή αὐτό G. αὐτοῦ, οἷο αὐτῆς αὐτοῦ, οἷο D. αὐτῷ αὐτῇ αὐτῷ A. αὐτόν αὐτήν αὐτό DUAL N. A. αὐτώ (αὐτώ) αὐτώ G. D. αὐτοῖιν (αὐτοῖιν) αὐτοῖιν PLURAL N. αὐτοί αὐταί αὐτά G. αὐτῶν αὐτᾱ́ων [έων, ὦν] αὐτῶν D. αὐτοῖσι, οἷς αὐτῇσι, ῇς αὐτοῖσι, οἷς A. αὐτούς αὐτᾱ́ς αὐτά ``` ``` §773. Relative Pronoun ὅς (ὅ), ἥ, ὅ who? which? what? SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. N. ὅς (ὅ) ἥ ὅ G. οὗ [ὅου, ὅο] ἧς [ἕης] οὗ [ὅου, ὅο] D. ᾧ ᾗ ᾧ A. ὅν ἥν ὅ DUAL Masc. Fem. Neut. N. A. V. ὥ (ὥ) ὥ G. D. οἷν (οἷν) οἷν PLURAL Masc. Fem. Neut. N. οἵ αἵ ἅ G. ὧν ὧν ὧν D. οἷσι, οἷς ᾗσι, ᾗς οἷσι, οἷς A. οὕς ἅς ἅ ``` ``` §774. Demonstrative Pronouns (ἐ)κεῖνος, η, ο that SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. N. (ἐ)κεῖνος (ἐ)κείνη (ἐ)κεῖνο G. (ἐ)κείνου, οιο (ἐ)κείνης (ἐ)κείνου, οιο D. (ἐ)κείνῳ (ἐ)κείνῃ (ἐ)κείνῳ A. (ἐ)κεῖνον (ἐ)κείνην (ἐ)κεῖνο DUAL Masc. Fem. Neut. N. A. V. (ἐ)κείνω ((ἐ)κείνω) (ἐ)κείνω G. D. (ἐ)κείνοιιν ((ἐ)κείνοιιν) (ἐ)κείνοιιν PLURAL Masc. Fem. Neut. N. (ἐ)κεῖνοι (ἐ)κεῖναι (ἐ)κεῖνα G. (ἐ)κείνων (ἐ)κεινά̄ων [ἔων, ὧν] (ἐ)κείνων D. (ἐ)κείνοισι, οις (ἐ)κείνῃσι, ῃς (ἐ)κείνοισι, οις A. (ἐ)κείνους (ἐ)κείνά̄ς (ἐ)κεῖνα ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε this SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. N. ὅδε ἥδε τόδε G. τοῦδε, τοῖοδε τῆσδε τοῦδε, τοῖοδε D. τῷδε τῇδε τῷδε A. τόνδε τήνδε τόδε DUAL Masc. Fem. Neut. N. A. τώδε (τώδε) τώδε G. D. τοῖινδε (τοῖινδε) τοῖινδε PLURAL Masc. Fem. Neut. N. οἵδε (τοίδε) αἵδε (ταίδε) τάδε G. τῶνδε τά̄ωνδε [τῶνδε] τῶνδε D. τοῖσ(ι)δε τῇσ(ι)δε τοῖσ(ι)δε A. τούσδε τά̄σδε τάδε οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο this SINGULAR Masc. Fem. Neut. N. οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο G. τούτου, οιο ταύτης τούτου, οιο D. τούτῳ ταύτῃ τούτῳ A. τοῦτον ταύτην τοῦτο DUAL Masc. Fem. Neut. N. A. τούτω (τούτω) τούτω G. D. τούτοιιν (τούτοιιν) τούτοιιν PLURAL Masc. Fem. Neut. N. οὗτοι αὗται ταῦτα G. τούτων ταυτά̄ων [ἔων, ὧν] τούτων D. τούτοισι, οις ταύτῃσι, ῃς τούτοισι, οις A. τούτους ταύτά̄ς ταῦτα NOTE. The dative plural of ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε at times has τοίσδεσ(σ)ι instead of τοῖσ(ι)δε. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | δῖος | DIVINE, heavenly, glorious | | ἑκηβόλος | Free-shooter, sharpshooter, from ἑκη-βόλος | | ἀλλ’ | But, moreover, from ἀλλά | | ἄλλοισι | Other, another, from ἄλλος | | κεῖνοι | = ἐκεῖνος, η, ο, from κεῖνος | | τοὺς | Demonstrative, personal, and relative pronoun, from ὁ | | κακῶς | Evilly, wickedly, harshly | | οὕνεκα | Because | | σκῆπτρα | SCEPTRE, staff, from σκῆπτρον | | χρύσεα | Gold, of gold, from χρύσεος | ## Lesson IX: The Imperfect of Verbs in -ω ### Tense and the augment A verb has tenses. A tense is a form that shows when the action happens. So far you know only the present. English usually marks the past at the end of the word: loose, loosed. Greek marks it at the front. Greek adds ἐ to the beginning of the verb. This is the augment. λύω, I loose, becomes ἔλυον, I was loosing. ### The imperfect This lesson's tense is the imperfect, a past tense. Pharr translates it I was loosing, and also I loosed or I did loose. The sentence shows which fits. If the verb begins with a consonant, the augment is ἐ in front: λύω, ἔλυον. If the verb begins with a vowel, the augment makes that vowel long: ἀκούω, I hear, becomes ἤκουον, I was hearing. Homer often leaves the augment off. The endings differ a little from the present. Singular: ἔλυον, ἔλυες, ἔλυε, for I, you, he. Plural: ἐλύομεν, ἐλύετε, ἔλυον, for we, you all, they. Dual: ἐλύετον, you two, and ἐλυέτην, they two. ἔλυον means both I was loosing and they were loosing. The sentence shows which. **72** ὁ ἑκηβόλος διὰ μαντοσύνην εἴρει βουλὰς τῶν θεῶν Ἀργείοισιν. The free-shooter, through the gift of prophecy, tells the plans of the gods to the Argives. **73** οἱ Ὀλύμπιοι θεοὶ εἶχον οἴκους ἐν Ὀλύμπῳ. The Olympian gods had homes on Olympus. **74** ὁ ἑκηβόλος διίφιλος ἔτευχε τοὺς Ἀργείους Ἀχαιούς τε ἐλώρια οἰωνοῖσιν. The free-shooter, dear to Zeus, made the Argives and Achaeans a prey for the birds. **75** Ἀχαιοὶ Ἀργεῖοί τ’ ἔτευχον ἔργα κακὰ διὰ βουλὴν θεᾶς. The Achaeans and the Argives performed evil deeds because of the will of a goddess. **76** Κλυταιμ(ν)ήστρη διὰ τὸν θῡμὸν ἔτευχεν τὰ ἔργα δεινά. Clytaemestra performed the dreadful deeds because of passion. **77** Πρίαμος λᾱός τε Πριάμου ὤλεκον πολλοὺς Ἀργείους. Priam and the people of Priam destroyed many Argives. **78** τίς εἴρει τὰ σὰ ἔργα κακὰ Πριάμῳ; Who tells Priam your evil deeds? **79** τὰ ἔργα ἐμά ἐστι κᾱλά, οὕνεκα ἔτευχον βουλὰς θεῶν καὶ θεάων διὰ τὴν μαντοσύνην. My deeds are noble, because I performed the plans of the gods and goddesses through the gift of prophecy. **80** ἐπέμπομεν τὰ χρύσεα σκῆπτρα εἰς οἶκον Πριάμῳ. We sent the golden sceptres into Priam's house. **81** ἐκαίετε τὰς πυρὰς δεινῇ κλαγγῇ; Were you burning the funeral pyres with a terrible roar? **82** οὐχ ἥνδανε ἡ βουλὴ θεᾷ θαλάσσης θῡμῷ; Was the plan not pleasing to the goddess of the sea in soul? **83** αἱ θεαὶ ἀείδουσι τὰ κᾱλὰ ἔργα τῶν θεῶν, ἑκηβόλος δὲ βαίνει ἄλλῃ. The goddesses sing the noble deeds of the gods, but the free-shooter goes elsewhere. **84** εἶχε Πρίαμος ἀγλαὸν καὶ κᾱλὸν οἶκον. Priam had a splendid and beautiful home. **85** τίς ἔφερε τὰ μῡρία ἀγλαὰ ἄποινα εἰς τὸν κᾱλὸν οἶκον Πριάμου; Who brought these countless shining ransoms to the beautiful home of Priam? **86** Ἀχαιοὶ καὶ Ἀργεῖοι ἔκαιον πολλὰς πυρὰς ἐνὶ σῇ φίλῃ πάτρῃ. The Achaeans and the Argives burned many funeral pyres in your beloved fatherland. **87** Κλυταιμ(ν)ήστρη κακὴ ἦν καὶ ἔτευχε πολλὰ ἔργα δεινά. Clytaem(n)estra was wicked and performed many dreadful deeds. **88** διὰ τὴν μαντοσύνην εἴρομεν πολλὰ ἀγλαὰ ἔργα θεῶν καὶ θεάων, οἳ ἔχουσιν Ὀλυμπίους οἴκους. Through the gift of prophecy we tell many glorious deeds of the gods and goddesses who have Olympian homes. **89** τὰ ἔργα ἐμά ἐστι κᾱλά, τὰ δὲ σὰ κακά. My deeds are noble but yours are cowardly. **90** οἱ θεοὶ ἔπεμπον νοῦσον κακὴν ἀνὰ τὸν στρατὸν καὶ ὤλεκον πολλοὺς Ἀχαιούς, οὕνεκα ἠτίμαζον τὸν ἑκηβόλον. The gods sent an evil plague up through the camp and destroyed many Achaeans, because they dishonored the free-shooter. **91** οὐχ ἥνδανε Κλυταιμ(ν)ήστρῃ κακῇ ψῡχῇ. It was not pleasing to Clytaem(n)estra in (her) wicked soul. **92** πολλὰς δʼ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν and hurled down to Hades many mighty souls ``` §830. Augment. Greek verbs prefix an augment (increase) at the beginning of the secondary (816) tenses of the indicative, to denote past time. ``` ``` §831. This augment is of two kinds: 1) syllabic augment, which prefixes ἐ- to verbs beginning with a consonant, as λύω I loose, imperfect ἔλυον I was loosing. 2) temporal augment, which lengthens the first syllable of words beginning with a vowel or a diphthong, as ἀκούω I hear, ἤκουον I was hearing. ``` ``` §832. When augmented α, ε regularly become η; ι, ο, υ become ῑ, ω, ῡ respectively; αι and ᾳ become η; while οι becomes ῳ. ``` ``` §833. Of course η, ῃ, ῑ, ῡ, ω, and ῳ do not undergo any change when augmented. ``` ``` §834. Verbs beginning with ρ regularly double it after the augment. Those beginning with λ, μ, ν, or σ sometimes double the initial consonant after the augment. ``` ``` §835. Verbs beginning with a vowel formerly preceded by a lost consonant (usually ϝ, or σ), may take the syllabic instead of the temporal augment, as ἐάνδανον, imperfect of ἀνδάνω (σϝανδανω) please. ``` ``` §836. When initial σ has thus been lost, the augment always contracts with the first vowel of the stem, according to the rules (584-5); when initial ϝ has been lost, contraction may or may not take place. Thus ἔχω (σεχω), imperfect εἶχον (ἐσεχον, ἔεχον); ἕπομαι (σεπομαι), imperfect εἰπόμην (ἐσεπομην, ἔεπομην); εἶδον (ἐϝιδον), second aorist of ὁράω (ϝοραω); ἄγνῡμι (ϝαγνῡμι, aorist ἔαξα (ἐϝαξα). ``` ``` §837. The augment, both syllabic and temporal, is often omitted. ``` ``` §838. Compound Verbs. Some prepositions (originally adverbs) are prefixed to verbs, the whole forming a compound. If the preposition ends with a vowel and the verb begins with one, the vowel of the preposition is usually elided (575), as διίστημι (διά-ἵστημι), ἀφαιρέω (ἀπό-αἱρέω (582)). ``` ``` §839. The augment of compound verbs comes between the preposition and the verb. If two vowels are thus brought together, the first is usually elided, as ἀπολύω loose, free; imperfect ἀπέλυον (ἀπό-ἔλυον); aorist ἀπέλῡσα (ἀπό-ἔλῡσα). ``` ``` §840. Imperfect. The imperfect (a secondary tense (816)) is formed by adding the secondary endings (821) to the augmented stem of the present, as λύω I loose, imperfect ἔλυον I was loosing; τίθημι I place, imperfect ἐτίθην. ``` ``` §904. Conjugation of λῡ́-ω I loose Observe that the υ of λύω is long only when followed by σ; otherwise it is short. Active Indicative Present Greek English S. 1 λύω I loose, am loosing, do loose 2 λύεις you loose, are loosing, do loose 3 λύει he looses, is loosing, does loose Du. 2 λύετον you two loose, etc. 3 λύετον they two loose, etc. Pl. 1 λύομεν we loose, etc. 2 λύετε you loose, etc. 3 λύουσι they loose, etc. Imperfect Greek English S. 1 ἔλυον I was loosing; I loosed, did loose 2 ἔλυες you were loosing, you loosed, did loose 3 ἔλυε he was loosing, he loosed, did loose Du. 2 ἐλύετον you two were loosing, etc. 3 ἐλυέτην they two were loosing, etc. Pl. 1 ἐλύομεν we were loosing, etc. 2 ἐλύετε you were loosing, etc. 3 ἔλυον they were loosing, etc. Future Greek English S. 1 λῡ́σω I shall (will) loose 2 λῡ́σεις you will (shall) loose 3 λῡ́σει he will (shall) loose Du. 2 λῡ́σετον you two will (shall) loose 3 λῡ́σετον they two will (shall) loose Pl. 1 λῡ́σομεν we shall (will) loose 2 λῡ́σετε you will (shall) loose 3 λῡ́σουσι they will (shall) loose Aorist Greek English S. 1 ἔλῡσα I loosed, did loose 2 ἔλῡσας you loosed, did loose 3 ἔλῡσε he loosed, did loose Du. 2 ἐλῡ́σατον you two loosed, did loose 3 ἐλῡσάτην they two loosed, did loose Pl. 1 ἐλῡ́σαμεν we loosed, did loose 2 ἐλῡ́σατε you loosed, did loose 3 ἔλῡσαν they loosed, did loose Perfect Greek English S. 1 λέλυκα I have loosed 2 λέλυκας you have loosed 3 λέλυκε he has loosed Du. 2 λελύκατον you two have loosed 3 λελύκατον they two have loosed Pl. 1 λελύκαμεν we have loosed 2 λελύκατε you have loosed 3 λελύκᾱσι they have loosed The perfect of λύω is not found in Homer, but these are the ordinary forms in Attic Greek. For the Homeric perfect system see 922-924, 966. Pluperfect Greek English S. 1 ἐλελύκη (-εα) I had loosed 2 ἐλελύκης (-εας) you had loosed 3 ἐλελύκει (-εε) he had loosed Du. 2 ἐλελύκετον you two had loosed 3 ἐλελυκέτην they two had loosed Pl. 1 ἐλελύκεμεν we had loosed 2 ἐλελύκετε you had loosed 3 ἐλελύκεσαν they had loosed ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | διὰ | Adv., and prep. with gen. and acc., through | | μαντοσύνην | Gift of prophecy, from μαντοσύνη | | εἴρει | Speak, say, tell, from εἴρω | | Ἀργείοισιν | Argive, Greek, from Ἀργεῖος | | Ὀλύμπιοι | Olympian, from Ὀλύμπιος | | οἴκους | House, home, from οἶκος | | Ὀλύμπῳ | Olympus, from Ὄλυμπος | | διίφιλος | Dear to Zeus, from διί-φιλος | | ἔργα | Work, deed, accomplishment, from ἔργον | | Κλυταιμνήστρη | Clytaemestra, wife of Agamemnon | | Πρίαμος | Priam, king of Troy | | σὰ | Your, yours, from σός | | ἐμά | My, mine, from ἐμός | | ἄλλῃ | Elsewhere | ## Lesson X: The Future and Aorist of Verbs in -ω ### The future and the aorist This lesson adds two tenses. The future states what will happen. The aorist is another past tense: I loosed, I did loose. Both are formed the same way. Add σ to the stem, before the ending. The stem is the part of the verb that has its basic meaning. In λύω it is the part before the ending. Future: λῡ́σω, I shall loose. λῡ́σεις, you will loose. λῡ́σει, he will loose. The endings are the present endings. Aorist: the augment marks the past at the front, as in the imperfect. Most endings have α. ἔλῡσα, I loosed. ἔλῡσας, you loosed. ἔλῡσε, he loosed. Plural: ἐλῡ́σαμεν, ἐλῡ́σατε, ἔλῡσαν. ### σ after the last sound of the stem The σ combines with the last sound of the stem. π and σ make ψ: πέμπω, πέμψω, ἔπεμψα, send. κ, γ or χ and σ make ξ: τεύχω, τεύξω, ἔτευξα, make. τ, δ or θ drop out before σ: πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα, persuade. ἀείδω, ἀείσω, ἤεισα, sing. A short vowel at the end of the stem becomes long: φιλέ-ω, φιλήσω, ἐφίλησα, love. Some verbs are irregular. ἄγ-ω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον, lead, has an aorist with no σ. From now on the word list gives three forms of each verb: present, future and aorist, each in the I form. Learn all three for every verb. **93** τίς ἦν ὄχ’ ἄριστος Δαναῶν; Who was by far the best of the Danaans? **94** Πρίαμος μεγάθῡμος ἤνασσεν Ἰλίου. Great-souled Priam ruled over Ilium. **95** οὐκ αὖτις ἄξουσι Δαναοὶ μεγάθῡμοι ἑκατόμβᾱς πολλὰς εἰς Χρύσην. The great-souled Danaans will not again bring many hecatombs to Chrysa. **96** οὐκ ἔπεισαν ἑκηβόλον πολλῇς ἑκατόμβησι κᾱλῇσιν. They did not persuade the free-shooter with many beautiful hecatombs. **97** οὐ φιλήσομεν θεούς, οὕνεκα κᾱλοί εἰσιν; Shall we not love the gods, because they are good? **98** Δαναοὶ τεύξουσι θάνατον Πριάμῳ ἐν Ἰλίῳ. The Danaans will prepare death for Priam in Ilium. **99** ἐφίλησα θεὰν θαλάσσης, ἀλλ’ οὐχ ἥνδανε ἑκηβόλῳ θῡμῷ. I loved the goddess of the sea, but it was not pleasing to the free-shooter in soul. **100** ἀείσομεν καὶ πείσομεν θεούς. We shall sing and persuade the gods. **101** ὄχ’ ἄριστοι ἐν Ἰλίῳ τὰ εἶπον Πριάμῳ, ἀλλὰ τοὺς ἠτίμασεν. By far the best men in Ilium said these things to Priam, but he dishonored them. **102** Πρίαμος ἔπεμψε τὸν στρατὸν ἄριστον ἐπ’ Ἀργείοισιν. Priam sent the best army against the Argives. **103** ἔβησαν αὖτις Δαναοὶ εἰς Ἴλιον, ἀλλ’ οὐκ ἔπεισαν Πρίαμον. The Danaans went again to Ilium, but they did not persuade Priam. **104** ἀείσομεν ἑκηβόλον ὄχ’ ἄριστον θεῶν, οὕνεκ’ ἤγαγε Δαναοὺς εἰς Ἴλιον. We shall sing of the free-shooter, by far the best of the gods, because he led the Danaans to Ilium. **105** Ἀχαιοὶ μεγάθῡμοι οὐ πείσουσι τὸν ἑκηβόλον ἑκατόμβῃσι κᾱλῇσιν, ἀλλὰ τεύξει θάνατον κακὸν λᾱῷ. The great-souled Achaeans will not persuade the free-shooter with goodly hecatombs, but he will prepare evil death for the people. **106** οἱ ἄριστοι Ἀχαιῶν ἔβησαν εἰς Ἴλιον, ἀλλ’ οὐκ ἔπεισαν ψῡχὴν Πριάμου. The noblest of the Achaeans went to Ilium, but they did not persuade the soul of Priam. **107** ἀείσομεν, οὕνεκα θεοὶ ἤγαγον τὸν λᾱὸν εἰς Ἴλιον. We shall sing, because the gods have led (aor.) the people into Troy. **108** ἕξομεν πολλὰ ἀγλαὰ χρύσεα σκῆπτρα. We shall have many shining golden sceptres. **109** οὐκ ἐφιλήσατε τοὺς θεούς, οἳ ἔχουσιν Ὀλυμπίους οἴκους; Did you not love the gods who have Olympian homes? **110** οὐκ αὖτις ἀνάξει Πρίαμος Ἰλίου, Ἀχαιοὶ γὰρ τεύξουσι θάνατον κακὸν αὐτῷ. Priam shall not rule Ilium again, for the Achaeans will prepare evil death for him. **111** εἶπε κᾱλῇ θεᾷ θαλάσσης; Did he speak to the beautiful goddess of the sea? **112** πείσουσι τὰς ψῡχὰς τῶν θεῶν ἑκατόμβῃσι πολλῇσιν. They will persuade the souls of the gods with many hecatombs. **113** ἢ νῦν δηθύνοντʼ ἢ ὕστερον αὖτις ἰόντα, either lingering now or coming back hereafter, ``` §841. First Aorist. The first aorist of vowel and mute verbs (849) (a secondary tense, 816) is regularly formed by adding -σ(σ)α to the augmented verb stem, followed by the personal endings of the secondary tenses. If the verb stem ends in a long vowel or a consonant only one σ is ever added; if it ends in a short vowel, either one or two sigmas may be used. ``` ``` §842. “Mixed” Aorists. A few aorists (sometimes called “mixed aorists”) are formed by adding -σο/ε, followed by the personal endings of the secondary tenses, to the augmented verb stem. ``` ``` §843. ἵημι throw, send; δίδωμι give, grant; and τίθημι put, place, have -κα in the aorist instead of -σα. ``` ``` §844. Future. The future (a primary tense) of vowel and mute verbs (849) is regularly formed by adding the tense suffix -σ(σ)ο/ε to the verb stem, followed by the personal endings of the primary tenses. ``` ``` §845. If the verb stem ends in a long vowel, the stem is not affected by the addition of -σο/ε and -σα in the formation of the future and aorist. ``` ``` §846. If the verb stem ends in a short vowel, all tenses except the present and imperfect regularly lengthen this, α and ε becoming η; ο becoming ω; as ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα; χολόω, χολώσω, ἐχόλωσα. Exception: ἐάω gives ἐάσω, εἴᾱσα. ``` ``` §847. Some verbs do not lengthen the short vowel according to the rule in 846. ``` ``` §848. These, and a few others, usually have σ before the personal ending of the perfect middle and the aorist passive. ``` ``` §849. Classes of Verbs. Verbs are called vowel verbs, liquid verbs, nasal verbs, and mute verbs, according as their stem ends in a vowel, a liquid, a nasal, or a mute (509-516). ``` ``` §850. Mute Verbs. If the verb stem ends in a mute, the following euphonic changes take place: 1) a labial mute (π, β, φ) unites with the sigma following and forms ψ, as πέμπω, πέμψω (πεμπσω), ἔπεμψα (ἐπεμπσα) send, escort: ἀμείβω, ἀμείψω, ἤμειψα (ἀμειβσω, ἠμειβσα) (ex)change; 2) a palatal mute (κ, γ, χ) unites with the sigma following and forms ξ, as ἀρήγω, ἀρήξω (ἀρηγσω), ἤρηξα (ἠρηγσα) help, assist; τεύχω, τεύξω (τευχσω), ἔτευξα (ἐτευχσα) make, fashion, cause. 3) a lingual mute (τ, δ, θ) before the σ is assimilated (610, 4), as πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade; ἀείδω, ἀείσω, ἤεισα sing. ``` ``` §851. Liquid and Nasal Verbs. If a verb stem ends in a liquid (λ, ρ) or a nasal (μ, ν), the future is regularly formed by adding -εσο/ε, with the loss of σ between vowels (603), to the verb stem, to which are attached the primary personal endings, as βάλλω, βαλέω (from βαλεσω) throw, shoot. ``` ``` §852. In a few cases the first ε is omitted, and σ is retained in verbs of this kind, as ὄρνῡμι, ὄρσω arouse, stir up. ``` ``` §853. A few verbs in addition to those with liquid and nasal stems have lost σ in the future, as καλέω, καλέω call, summon. In general these verbs have a liquid or nasal before the final vowel of the stem, and imitate the forms of the futures of liquid and nasal verbs. ``` ``` §854. Those formations in which σ is dropped after α or ε are sometimes called “Attic futures.” ``` ``` §855. A few verbs have active forms in the present, but middle forms in the future, as ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι hear. ``` ``` §856. Verbs with liquid and nasal stems regularly form their aorists by dropping the σ and lengthening the stem vowel by compensation (601), α becoming η, ε becoming ει, ι becoming ῑ, and υ becoming ῡ, as φαίνω (φαν-), φανέω (φανεσω), ἔφηνα (ἐφανσα) show; μένω, μενέω (μενεσω), ἔμεινα (ἐμενσα) remain, await. ``` ``` §857. In some cases the σ is retained in formations of this kind, as ὄρνῡμι, ὦρσα stir up, arouse; κέλλω, ἔκελσα land; κύρω, κύρσω meet. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | ὄχ’ | Far, much, considerably, from ὄχα | | ἄριστος | Best, noblest, bravest | | Δαναῶν | Danaan, Greek, from Δαναός | | μεγάθῡμος | Great-souled, brave, from μεγά-θυμος | | ἤνασσεν | Rule, guard, protect, from ἀνάσσω | | Ἰλίου | Ilium, Troy, from Ἴλιος | | αὖτις | Again, anew | | ἄξουσι | Lead, drive, conduct, from ἄγ-ω | | ἑκατόμβᾱς | Hecatomb, sacrifice, from ἑκατόμ-βη | | ἔπεισαν | Persuade, win over, mislead, from πείθω | | φιλήσομεν | Love, cherish, entertain hospitably, from φιλέ-ω | | θάνατον | Death, from θάνατος | | ἢ | Or, than, whether | | νῦν | Now, at this time, as matters now are | | δηθύνοντʼ | Loiter, tarry, delay, from δηθύνω | | ὕστερον | Behind, later, at another time, from ὕστερος | | ἰόντα | Come, go, from εἶμι |