# Prīmus et Secundus Annus, Lēctiōnēs 16–22

Prīmus Annus I

Lūdus; Agricola Rōmānus; Arma Rōmāna; Titus Rōmam vīsit; Carta Rōmae

Source: https://1732studios.com/courses/la/3. Data: https://1732studios.com/courses/la/3.json.

## Praepositiōnēs: Cāsus Ablātīvus (Ubi?), prepositions with the ablative, where it is

### Where the rooms are

In lūdis sunt multae camerae means "In the schools there are many rooms."

In lūdis names where the rooms are. Lūdis is ablative.

The ablative can name the place where something is or happens.

### In takes the ablative

When in names where something is or happens, it takes the ablative.

In mediā aquā means "in the middle of the water." Aquā is ablative because the phrase names where the islands are seen.

**1** In Britanniā sunt multī lūdī et campī; in lūdō multī puerī labōrant, lūdunt in campō; innumerī igitur discipulī in tōtā Britanniā sunt.  
In Britain there are many schools and playing fields; in school many boys work, they play in the field; so there are countless pupils in the whole of Britain.

**2** In lūdis sunt multae camerae, in camerīs multae sellae, in sellīs discipulī sedent.  
In the schools there are many rooms, in the rooms many chairs, in the chairs the pupils sit.

**3** In camerā etiam sunt quattuor mūrī; in prīmō mūrō est iānua, in alterō fenestrae, in tertiō tabula nigra, in quārtō pīctūrae.  
In the room too there are four walls; in the first wall is the door, in the second the windows, in the third the blackboard, in the fourth pictures.

**4** Magister ā sellā surgit, crētam ā mensa sūmit, trēs sententiās in tabulā scrībit, prīmam in summā tabula, alteram in mediā, tertiam in īmā.  
The master rises from his chair, takes chalk from the table, writes three sentences on the blackboard: the first at the top of the blackboard, the second in the middle, the third at the bottom.

**5** Multae lītterae in sententiā sunt, permultae in pāginā, in tōtō librō innumerae.  
There are many letters in a sentence, a great many on a page, in a whole book countless.

**6** Nunc magister cartam Eurōpae mōnstrat.  
Now the master shows the map of Europe.

**7** In summā cartā est Britannia, ubi Britannī habitant; in mediā est Helvētia, in īmā Sicilia.  
At the top of the map is Britain, where the Britons live; in the middle is Switzerland, at the bottom Sicily.

**8** Graecia est ā dextrā, ā sinistrā Hispānia.  
Greece is on the right, Spain on the left.

**9** Graecī in Graeciā habitant, in Hispāniā Hispānī.  
The Greeks live in Greece, the Spaniards in Spain.

**10** In mediā aquā multās īnsulās vidētis.  
In the middle of the water you see many islands.

**11** Nunc magister in mediā camerā stat et ad sellās sē vertit.  
Now the master stands in the middle of the room and turns towards the chairs.

**12** Fenestrae sunt ā dextrā, iānua ā sinistrā, sellae ā fronte, tabula ā tergō.  
The windows are on the right, the door on the left, the chairs in front, the blackboard behind.

**13** Ad iānuam sē vertit: ubi sunt fenestrae, iānua, sellae, tabula?  
He turns towards the door: where are the windows, the door, the chairs, the blackboard?

**14** Ubi labōrās?  
Where do you work?

**15** Ubi lūdis?  
Where do you play?

**16** Ubi sunt camerae?  
Where are the rooms?

**17** Ubi sunt sellae?  
Where are the chairs?

**18** Ubi sedētis?  
Where do you sit?

**19** Ubi magister sedet?  
Where does the master sit?

**20** Ubi pīctūrās vidēs?  
Where do you see pictures?

**21** Ubi pēnsum scrībis?  
Where do you write your exercise?

**22** Ubi magister prīmam sententiam scrībit? alteram? tertiam?  
Where does the master write the first sentence? the second? the third?

**23** Ubi sunt pāginae?  
Where are the pages?

**24** Magister sē ad fenestrās vertit: ubi sunt fenestrae, iānua, sellae, tabula? Ubi magister stat?  
The master turns towards the windows: where are the windows, the door, the chairs, the blackboard? Where does the master stand?

**25** Ubi sunt Britannia, Hispānia, Gallia, Germānia, Āfrica, Graecia?  
Where are Britain, Spain, Gaul, Germany, Africa, Greece?

**26** Ubi sunt īnsulae?  
Where are the islands?

**27** Ubi habitant Ītalī, Helvētiī, Germānī, Gallī?  
Where do the Italians, the Swiss, the Germans, the Gauls live?

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D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson VI, §§48-56

§48. The Ablative Case. Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab´la-tive.
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§49. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular ends in -ā and the ablative plural in -īs.

a. Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as,

Nom. fīliă
Abl. fīliā

b. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortūna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.
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§50. The Ablative Relation. The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by from.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by with or by.

3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by in or at.

a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.
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§51. Prepositions. While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.
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§52. RULE. Object of a Preposition. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.
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§53. Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

ā[1] or ab, from, away from
dē, from, down from
ē[1] or ex, from, out from, out of
cum, with
in, in, on
[1] ā and ē are used only before words beginning with a consonant; ab and ex are used before either vowels or consonants.

1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.
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§54. Adjectives. Examine the sentence

Puella parva bonam deam amat,
  the little girl loves the good goddess

In this sentence parva (little) and bonam (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called adjectives,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.
[2] Pick out the adjectives in the following: “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of parva shows that it belongs to puella, and the ending of bonam that it belongs to deam. Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement. Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.
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§55. Examine the sentences

Puella est parva,
  the girl is little
Puella parva bonam deam amat,
  the little girl loves the good goddess

In the first sentence the adjective parva is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a predicate adjective. In the second sentence the adjectives parva and bonam are closely attached to the nouns puella and deam respectively, and are called attributive adjectives.

a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc´ative (Latin vocāre, “to call”). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.

b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? Pugnatne nauta? you would say Pugnat, he is fighting, or Nōn pugnat, he is not fighting.
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| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| tōtā | whole, all, from totus |
| summā | highest, greatest, from summus |
| mediā | middle, middle part of, from medius |
| īmā | lowest, the bottom of, from īmus |
| permultae | very much, from permultus |
| habitant | dwell, abide, from habito |
| Graecī | the Greeks |
| Hispānī | Spain |
| vertit | turn, change, from verto |
| fronte | front, from frons |
| tergō | back, from tergum |
| pēnsum | allotment for weaving, wool given |
| Helvētiī | the Helvetii |

## Concordia Adiectīvī, agreement of the adjective

### Two adjectives match fluvius

Ister fluvius longus est et lātus means "The river Danube is long and wide."

Longus and lātus match fluvius in masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case.

Adjectives of the first and second declensions have masculine, feminine, and neuter forms. The forms of bonus give all three for every case and number.

### The forms of bonus

### Matching does not require matching endings

Incolae Rōmānī multōs agrōs habent means "The Roman inhabitants have many fields."

Incolae and Rōmānī are masculine, plural, and nominative, although their endings differ.

Adjectives match their nouns in gender, number, and case, not necessarily in ending.

**28** In cartā appārent terra et aqua.  
On the map land and water appear.

**29** In terrā sunt incolae—in Galliā Gallī habitant, in Germaniā Germānī.  
On the land there are inhabitants: in Gaul the Gauls live, in Germany the Germans.

**30** Hanc aquam ōceanum vocāmus, sed illam fluvium.  
This water we call the ocean, but that a river.

**31** In Ōceanō nautae labōrant.  
On the ocean sailors work.

**32** Ister fluvius longus est et lātus; Padus, fluvius angustus et rapidus, per Ītaliam fluit.  
The river Danube is long and wide; the Po, a narrow, swift river, flows through Italy.

**33** Prope Padum sunt clīvī altī; nūllī agrī in summīs clīvīs sunt, sed in īmīs clīvīs multī.  
Near the Po are high hills; there are no fields on the hilltops, but many on the lower slopes.

**34** Agricolae agrōs colunt.  
Farmers till the fields.

**35** Agricola ita vocātur quia agrōs colit; nōn enim clīvōs summōs neque silvās colit, sed agrōs in īmīs clīvīs et in rīpā colit.  
A farmer is so called because he tills fields; for he does not till the hilltops or the woods, but the fields on the lower slopes and on the riverbank.

**36** Incolae Rōmānī multōs agrōs habent neque suōs agrōs colunt: agricolae igitur prō incolīs Rōmānīs in agrīs labōrant.  
The Roman inhabitants have many fields and do not till their own fields: so farmers work in the fields on behalf of the Roman inhabitants.

**37** Nautae nōn in terrā labōrant, sed in Ōceanō.  
Sailors do not work on land, but on the ocean.

**38** Britannī nautae prō patriā Britanniā et incolīs Britannīs in Ōceanō pūgnant.  
British sailors fight on the ocean for their native land Britain and for the British people.

**39** Sī aqua circum terram est, quōmodo vocātur?  
If water is around the land, what is it called?

**40** Sī per terram fluit, quōmodo vocātur?  
If it flows through the land, what is it called?

**41** Quid agricola colit? ubi labōrat?  
What does a farmer till? where does he work?

**42** Quālis fluvius est Padus? ubi fluit?  
What sort of river is the Po? where does it flow?

**43** Ubi sunt agrī?  
Where are the fields?

**44** Quis agrōs colit?  
Who tills the fields?

**45** Quī nautae in Ōceanō pūgnant?  
Which sailors fight on the ocean?

**46** Quī incolae in Galliā, in Ītaliā, in Hispāniā habitant?  
Which inhabitants live in Gaul, in Italy, in Spain?

**47** Quō Padus fluvius fluit? et unde?  
Where does the river Po flow to? and from where?

**48** Quid vidēs in rīpīs?  
What do you see on the banks?

**49** Cūius in camerā labōrās?  
In whose room do you work?

**50** Prō quibus Rōmānī nautae pūgnant?  
For whom do the Roman sailors fight?

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D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson VIII, §§64-68

§64. We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in case and in number (§54). They agree also in gender. In the phrase silva magna, we have a feminine adjective in -a agreeing with a feminine noun in -a.
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§65. RULE. Agreement of Adjectives. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.
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§66. Feminine adjectives in -a are declined like feminine nouns in -a, and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

        NOUN               ADJECTIVE
domina (base domin-),  bona (base bon-),
   f., lady                  good

        SINGULAR                TERMINATIONS
Nom.    do´mina             bona        -a
Gen.    dominae             bonae       -ae
Dat.    dominae             bonae       -ae
Acc.    dominam             bonam       -am
Abl.    dominā              bonā        -ā

        PLURAL
Nom.    dominae             bonae       -ae
Gen.    dominā´rum          bonā´rum    -ārum
Dat.    dominīs             bonīs       -īs
Acc.    dominās             bonās       -ās
Abl.    dominīs             bonīs       -īs

a. In the same way decline together puella mala, the bad girl; ancil´la parva, the little maid; fortū´na magna, great fortune.
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§67. The words dea, goddess, and fīlia, daughter, take the ending -ābus instead of -īs in the dative and ablative plural. Note the dative and ablative plural in the following declension:

dea bona (bases de- bon-)

        SINGULAR      PLURAL
Nom.    dea bona      deae bonae
Gen.    deae bonae    deā´rum bonā´rum
Dat.    deae bonae    deā´bus bonīs
Acc.    deam bonam    deās bonās
Abl.    deā bonā      dea´bus bonīs

a. In the same way decline together fīlīa parva.
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§68. Latin Word Order. The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on my, daughter, dinner, farmers.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its ending (cf. §32.1), and not by its position, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

I saw a game of football at Chicago last November (normal order) Last November I saw a game of football at Chicago At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of football

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the first; next in importance is the last; the weakest point is the middle. Generally the subject is the most important word, and is placed first; usually the verb is the next in importance, and is placed last. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows:

subject--modifiers of the subject--indirect object--direct object--adverb--verb

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin.

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as

fīlia mea, my daughter;
  mea fīlia, my daughter;
casa Galbae, Galba’s cottage;
  Galbae casa, Galba’s cottage.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways:

Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat (normal order)
Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam (mea and cēnam emphatic)
Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat (agricolīs emphatic)

3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words.

Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat (parvam not emphatic) Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat (parvam more emphatic) Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat (parvam very emphatic)

4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

5. The copula (as est, sunt) is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well.
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§83. Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows:

        MASCULINE  FEMININE   NEUTER
        SINGULAR
Nom.    bonus      bona       bonum
Gen.    bonī       bonae      bonī
Dat.    bonō       bonae      bonō
Acc.    bonum      bonam      bonum
Abl.    bonō       bonā       bonō
Voc.    bone       bona       bonum

      PLURAL
Nom.    bonī       bonae      bona
Gen.    bonōrum    bonārum    bonōrum
Dat.    bonīs      bonīs      bonīs
Acc.    bonōs      bonās      bona
Abl.    bonīs      bonīs      bonīs

a. Write the declension and give it orally across the page, thus giving the three genders for each case.

b. Decline grātus, -a, -um; malus, -a, -um; altus, -a, -um; parvus, -a, -um.
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§84. Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does not mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, nauta, sailor, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective bonus is of the second declension. Consequently, a good sailor is nauta bonus. So, the wicked farmer is agricola malus. Learn the following declensions:
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§85. nauta bonus (bases naut- bon-), m., the good sailor

        SINGULAR
Nom.    nauta     bonus
Gen.    nautae    bonī
Dat.    nautae    bonō
Acc.    nautam    bonum
Abl.    nautā     bonō
Voc.    nauta     bone

        PLURAL
Nom.    nautae    bonī
Gen.    nautārum  bonōrum
Dat.    nautīs    bonīs
Acc.    nautās    bonōs
Abl.    nautīs    bonīs
Voc.    nautae    bonī
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| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| appārent | prepare, fit out, from appareo |
| incolae—in | inhabitant, from incola |
| ōceanum | the Ocean |
| fluvium | river, from fluvius |
| nautae | sailor, from nauta |
| angustus | narrow, steep |
| rapidus | rapid, swift |
| fluit | flow, from fluo |
| clīvī | slope, incline, from clivus |
| agrī | field, from ager |
| clīvīs | slope, incline, from cliva |
| Agricolae | farmer, from agricola |
| colunt | strain, clarify, from colo |
| quia | because |
| silvās | wood, forest, from silva |
| rīpā | bank |
| prō | before |
| pūgnant | fight, from pugno |
| Sī | if |

## Genus Neutrum, the neuter gender

### The same neuter singular form

Bracchium sinistrum scūtum oblongum tenet means the left arm holds an oblong shield.

Bracchium is nominative as the subject. Scūtum is accusative as the direct object.

Both are neuter singular forms ending in -um. A neuter noun has the same form in the nominative and accusative.

### The same neuter plural form

In castrīs sunt multa tabernācula means there are many tents in the camp. Tabernācula is nominative as the subject.

Arma et tēla vidēmus means the speakers see armour and weapons. Arma and tēla are accusative as direct objects.

These neuter plural forms all end in -a. The same -a form serves as nominative or accusative.

**51** Castra Rōmāna quadrāta sunt.  
A Roman camp is square.

**52** Rōmānī vāllum circum castra aedificant, extrā vāllum terram fodiunt et ita fossam faciunt.  
The Romans build a rampart around the camp; outside the rampart they dig the earth and so make a ditch.

**53** In castrīs sunt multa tabernācula; sī tabernāculum intrāmus, arma et tēla vidēmus.  
In the camp there are many tents; if we go into a tent, we see armour and weapons.

**54** Arma sunt galea et scūtum et lōrīca.  
The armour is helmet and shield and breastplate.

**55** Tēla sunt hasta et gladius et iaculum.  
The weapons are spear and sword and javelin.

**56** Rōmānus iaculum acūtum iacit, hastam longam trūdit.  
The Roman throws the sharp javelin, thrusts the long spear.

**57** Cum pūgnāre vult, gladium ex vāgīnā stringit.  
When he wants to fight, he draws his sword from its sheath.

**58** Ecce! in pīctūrā Rōmānus gladium gerit; gladius ā dextrā, nōn ā sinistrā pendet.  
Look! in the picture the Roman wears a sword; the sword hangs on the right, not the left.

**59** Bracchium sinistrum scūtum oblongum tenet; Gallus autem nōn scūtum, sed clipeum rotundum gerit.  
The left arm holds an oblong shield; the Gaul, however, carries not a shield but a round buckler.

**60** Sī puer Britannus pūgnāre vult, neque tēla neque arma habet, sed pūgnōs.  
If a British boy wants to fight, he has neither weapons nor armour, but fists.

**61** Pūgnus et bracchium membra sunt; alia membra sunt collum, tergum, nāsus, oculī.  
Fist and arm are limbs; other parts of the body are the neck, the back, the nose, the eyes.

**62** Quot colla, bracchia, oculōs, nāsōs, terga habēs?  
How many necks, arms, eyes, noses, backs do you have?

**63** Ubi sunt scūtum, gladius, tabernācula, vāllum, fossa?  
Where are the shield, the sword, the tents, the rampart, the ditch?

**64** Quae sunt arma? quae tēla?  
What is armour? what are weapons?

**65** Quāle est scūtum? quālis clipeus?  
What is the shield like? what is the buckler like?

**66** Utrum bracchium clipeum gerit?  
Which arm carries the buckler?

**67** Quid Rōmānus stringit? Quid trūdit? Quid iacit?  
What does the Roman draw? What does he thrust? What does he throw?

**68** Quōmodo multa in ūnō campō tabernācula vocās?  
What do you call many tents in one field?

**69** Utra castra quadrāta sunt, Gallica an Rōmāna?  
Which camp is square, the Gallic or the Roman?

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D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson IX, §§70-76

§70. Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.
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§71. The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or O-Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um. The genitive singular ends in -ī.
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§72. Gender. Nouns in -um are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.
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§73. Declension of nouns in -us and -um. Masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows:

dominus (base domin-),    pīlum (base pīl-),
   m., master                  n., spear

               TERMINATIONS       TERMINATIONS
        SINGULAR
Nom.    do´minus[1]  -us       pīlum     -um
Gen.    dominī       -ī        pīlī      -ī
Dat.    dominō       -ō        pīlō      -ō
Acc.    dominum      -um       pīlum     -um
Abl.    dominō       -ō        pīlō      -ō
Voc.    domine       -e        pīlum     -um
[1] Compare the declension of domina and of dominus.

        PLURAL
Nom.    dominī       -ī        pīla      -a
Gen.    dominō´rum   -ōrum     pīlō´rum  -ōrum
Dat.    dominīs      -īs       pīlīs     -īs
Acc.    dominōs      -ōs       pīla      -a
Abl.    dominīs      -īs       pīlīs     -īs

a. Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural.

b. The vocative singular of words of the second declension in -us ends in -ĕ, as domine, O master; serve, O slave. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a.
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§74. Write side by side the declension of domina, dominus, and pīlum. A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

a. The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

b. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in -a.

c. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in -m and the accusative plural in -s.

d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

e. Final -i and -o are always long; final -a is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension.
```

```
§75. Observe the sentences

Lesbia est bona,
  Lesbia is good
Lesbia est ancilla,
  Lesbia is a maidservant

We have learned (§55) that bona, when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a predicate adjective. Similarly a noun, as ancilla, used in the predicate to define the subject is called a predicate noun.
```

```
§76. RULE. Predicate Noun. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.
```

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| Castra | fort, from castrum |
| vāllum | earth-works, rampart |
| aedificant | build, erect, from aedifico |
| fodiunt | dig, dig out, from fodio |
| fossam | ditch, from fossa |
| tabernācula | tent, from tabernaculum |
| arma | arms |
| tēla | weapon of offense, spear, from telum |
| galea | helmet |
| scūtum | shield |
| lōrīca | coat of mail, corselet |
| hasta | spear |
| gladius | sword |
| iaculum | javelin, from jaculum |
| iacit | throw, hurl, from jacio |
| trūdit | thrust, push, from trudo |
| vult | will, be willing, from volo |
| vāgīnā | sheath, scabbard |
| stringit | draw tight, from stringo |
| gerit | bear, carry on, from gero |
| pendet | weigh out, from pendeo |
| Bracchium | forearm, arm |
| oblongum | oblong, from oblongus |
| clipeum | round |
| pūgnōs | battle, fight, from pugnus |
| membra | member, limb, from membrum |
| collum | neck |
| nāsus | nose |
| oculī | eye, from oculus |
| clipeus | round |

## Give the forms: pendeō, iaciō

**70** pendeō  
hang

**71** iaciō  
throw

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| iaciō | throw |

## Give the forms: iaciō, trūdō

**72** iaciō  
throw

**73** trūdō  
push

## Give the forms: pūgnō, redeō

**74** pūgnō  
fight

**75** redeō  
go back

## Ablātīvus Īnstrūmentī, the ablative of the instrument

### The instrument stands in the ablative

Scūtīs enim sē dēfendunt means "For they defend themselves with shields."

Scūtīs names the shields used for defending. Tēlīs, hastā, gladiō, and iaculō name the weapons used for attacking.

### No preposition introduces the instrument

The ablative without a preposition names the means or instrument used to perform an action.

Stilō means "with a pen", and crētā means "with chalk".

Stilō and crētā name the instruments. In pāginā and in tabulā name the places.

Quō īnstrumentō asks which instrument is used. The answer names it in the ablative without cum.

**76** Rōmānī, cum pūgnāre volunt, arma et tēla gerunt.  
The Romans, when they want to fight, carry armour and weapons.

**77** Scūtīs enim sē dēfendunt; tēlīs autem, hastā, gladiō, iaculō aliōs oppūgnant.  
For they defend themselves with shields; but with weapons (spear, sword, javelin) they attack others.

**78** Gallus nōn scūtō, sed clipeō rotundō, sē dēfendit.  
The Gaul defends himself not with a shield but with a round buckler.

**79** Puer Britannus nōn tēlīs armīsque pūgnat, sed pūgnīs; sinistrō pūgnō oppūgnat, dextrō sē dēfendit; oppūgnāre etiam nōnnunquam dextrō potest.  
A British boy fights not with weapons and armour but with his fists; with the left fist he attacks, with the right he defends himself; sometimes he can attack with the right too.

**80** Membrīs nostrīs multa facere possumus: oculīs enim vidēmus, linguā recitāmus, bracchiīs pilam iacimus, dextrā stilum vel crētam, cum scrībere volumus, tenēmus; stilō in pāginā, in tabulā crētā scrībimus.  
With our limbs we can do many things: for with our eyes we see, with our tongue we recite, with our arms we throw a ball, with the right hand we hold a pen or chalk when we want to write; with a pen we write on a page, with chalk on the blackboard.

**81** Quō īnstrumentō in tabulā scrībis? In pāginā?  
With what instrument do you write on the blackboard? On a page?

**82** Quibus armīs Rōmānus sē dēfendit? Gallus?  
With what armour does the Roman defend himself? the Gaul?

**83** Quō membrō scrībis? recitās? pilam iacis?  
With what part of the body do you write? recite? throw a ball?

**84** Quibus membrīs vidēs? pūgnās?  
With what parts of the body do you see? fight?

**85** Utrō pūgnō tē dēfendis? alium puerum oppūgnās?  
With which fist do you defend yourself? attack another boy?

**86** Utrō bracchiō Rōmānus scūtum tenet?  
With which arm does the Roman hold his shield?

**87** Quibus tēlīs Rōmānus oppūgnat?  
With what weapons does the Roman attack?

**88** Potesne sinistrā scrībere?  
Can you write with your left hand?

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XV, §§100-106

§100. Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition with. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by cum. This will become clear from the following sentences:

a. Mark is feeble with (for or because of) want of food
b. Diana kills the beasts with (or by) her arrows
c. Julia is with Sextus
d. The men fight with great steadiness

a. In sentence a, with want (of food) gives the cause of Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of cause:

Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī

b. In sentence b, with (or by) her arrows tells by means of what Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of means:

Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat

c. In sentence c we are told that Julia is not alone, but in company with Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition cum, and the construction is called the ablative of accompaniment:

Iūlia est cum Sextō

d. In sentence d we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of manner. This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with cum, unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case cum may be omitted. This construction is called the ablative of manner:

Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant
```

```
§101. You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting with:
```

```
§102. RULE. Ablative of Cause. Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?
```

```
§103. RULE. Ablative of Means. Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?

N.B. Cum must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means.
```

```
§104. RULE. Ablative of Accompaniment. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with cum. This answers the question With whom?
```

```
§105. RULE. Ablative of Manner. The ablative with cum is used to denote the manner of an action. Cum may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?
```

```
§106. What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (or by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.
```

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| dēfendunt | defend, from defendo |
| oppūgnant | storm, assail, from oppugno |
| pūgnīs | battle, from pugna |
| nōnnunquam | sometimes, from nonnumquam |
| īnstrumentō | tool, tools, from instrumentum |
| Potesne | able, capable |

## Give the forms: volō

**89** volō  
want

## Īnfīnītīvus. Cāsus Accūsātīvus (Quamdiū? Quam longē?), the infinitive, and the accusative of how long and how far

### What the boy begins

iam Graecam linguam intellegere incipit means he is already beginning to understand Greek.

Incipit gives the beginning. Intellegere completes incipit. Both verbs have the boy as their subject.

### One subject for both verbs

Suam linguam bene dīcere potest means he can speak his own language well.

Potest gives the ability. Dīcere completes potest. The boy remains the subject of both verbs.

Latin completes verbs of beginning or ability with an infinitive. The infinitive shares the main verb's subject.

**90** Procul Rōmā agricola et Titus fīlius habitant.  
Far from Rome live a farmer and his son Titus.

**91** Hic cottīdiē ad lūdum it: bonus enim puer est et iam Graecam linguam intellegere incipit.  
He goes to school every day: for he is a good boy and is already beginning to understand Greek.

**92** Suam linguam bene dīcere potest, quia magistrī bene docēre possunt.  
He can speak his own language well, because the masters can teach well.

**93** Nunc tredecim annōs nātus est et Rōmam īre vult.  
Now he is thirteen years old and wants to go to Rome.

**94** Itaque agricola Rōmam eum dūcit.  
And so the farmer takes him to Rome.

**95** Quia Rōma procul ab agrīs abest, ambulāre nōn possunt: equī igitur eōs vehunt.  
Because Rome is far away from the fields, they cannot walk: so horses carry them.

**96** Cum ad portam Latīnam veniunt, ab equīs dēscendunt, quia viae intrā mūrum inīquae sunt et angustae.  
When they come to the Latin Gate, they get down from the horses, because the streets inside the wall are rough and narrow.

**97** Sex deinde hōrās Rōmae manent; duās hōrās per omnēs viās eunt et antīqua aedificia spectant; multa enim ex templīs quadringentōs annōs aedificāta sunt.  
Then they stay six hours in Rome; for two hours they go through all the streets and look at the ancient buildings; for many of the temples were built four hundred years ago.

**98** Deinde amīcum vīsunt et apud illum prandent.  
Then they visit a friend and have lunch at his house.

**99** Post prandium puer spectācula spectāre vult; ad Circum Māximum igitur eunt, et spectācula trēs hōrās spectant.  
After lunch the boy wants to see the shows; so they go to the Circus Maximus, and watch the shows for three hours.

**100** Tandem equōs prope portam Latīnam petunt et domum redeunt.  
At last they fetch the horses near the Latin Gate and return home.

**101** Quot annōs nātus es?  
How old are you?

**102** Quot hōrās Latīnam linguam, Gallicam linguam, mathēmaticam scientiam cottīdiē discis?  
How many hours a day do you learn Latin, French, mathematics?

**103** Quamdiū in campō lūdis?  
How long do you play in the field?

**104** Quot hōrās cottīdiē labōrās?  
How many hours a day do you work?

**105** Quot hōrās agricola labōrat?  
How many hours does a farmer work?

**106** In nostrā camerā quot passūs abest fenestra ā iānuā?  
In our room, how many paces is the window from the door?

**107** In tuā camerā quot passūs mēnsa ā fenestrā abest?  
In your room, how many paces is the table from the window?

**108** Quamdiū dormīs?  
How long do you sleep?

**109** Quot annōs noster lūdus aedificātus est?  
How many years ago was our school built?

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXVII, §§212-216

§212. Learn the principal parts of possum, I am able, I can, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.)

a. Possum, I can, is a compound of potis, able, and sum, I am.
```

```
§213. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative. The infinitive (cf. §173) is a verbal noun. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, Is virōs fugere iussit, he commanded the men to flee.
```

```
§214. RULE. Subject of the Infinitive. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.
```

```
§215. The Complementary Infinitive. In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls. This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are possum, I am able, I can; properō, mātūrō, I hasten; temptō, I attempt; as

Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt,
  the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls
Bellum gerere mātūrant,
  they hasten to wage war

a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.

Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt, bad boys are not able to (or cannot) be good.

Observe that bonī agrees with puerī.
```

```
§216. The Infinitive used as a Noun. In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with est, as

Superāre est grātum, to conquer is pleasing
Vidēre est crēdere, to see is to believe

a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as

Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs,
  for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many

b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence superāre est grātum, the predicate adjective grātum is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with superāre the subject.
```

```
§333. Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§478). The ordinals are all declined like bonus.
```

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§334. The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of bonus. The first three are

singulī, -ae, -a, one each, one by one
bīnī, -ae, -a, two each, two by two
ternī, -ae, -a, three each, three by three
```

```
§335. We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as per plūrimōs annōs, for a great many years; per tōtum diem, for a whole day. Here the space relation is one of extent of time. We could also say per decem pedēs, for ten feet, where the space relation is one of extent of space. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as,

Vir tōtum diem cucurrit, the man ran for a whole day Caesar mūrum decem pedēs mōvit, Cæsar moved the wall ten feet
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```
§336. RULE. Accusative of Extent. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative.

a. This accusative answers the questions how long? how far?

b. Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time how long and the ablative of time when, or within which.

Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following:

When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o’clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king’s death.
```

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| Procul | far, afar off |
| fīlius | son |
| bonus | good, kind |
| iam | already, now, from jam |
| Graecam | Greek, from Graece |
| incipit | begin, from incipio |
| tredecim | thirteen |
| annōs | year, from annus |
| nātus | born, arisen |
| Itaque | and so, therefore |
| dūcit | lead, conduct, from duco |
| ab | from, by |
| abest | be away, be absent, from absum |
| equī | horse, from equus |
| vehunt | bear, carry, from veho |
| portam | gate, from porta |
| dēscendunt | descend, climb, from descendo |
| viae | way, road, from via |
| inīquae | unjust, unfair, from iniquus |
| manent | remain, from maneo |
| antīqua | old, ancient, from antiquus |
| aedificia | building, dwelling, from aedificium |
| templīs | temple, shrine, from templum |
| quadringentōs | square, from quadringenti |
| amīcum | friend, from amicus |
| vīsunt | visit, go to see, from viso |
| apud | among |
| prandium | luncheon |
| spectācula | show, spectacle, from spectaculum |
| Tandem | at length, finally |
| Quamdiū | for how long? |
| passūs | a pace |

## Nōmina et Adiectīva, nouns and adjectives

### Capitōlium and templum match

Ibi Capitōlium vidētis, templum, ubi māgnus deus habitat means "There you see the Capitol, the temple where the great god dwells."

Capitōlium is the direct object of vidētis and takes the accusative case. Its appositive templum is accusative too.

### An appositive matches the case

Via Sacra praeter forum ad Capitōlium, templum sacrum, dūcit means "The Sacred Way leads past the forum to the Capitol, the sacred temple."

After ad, Capitōlium is accusative. Its appositive templum matches its case.

A noun in apposition agrees in case with the noun it explains.

**110** Rōma in septem clīvīs stat.  
Rome stands on seven hills.

**111** Ibi Capitōlium vidētis, templum, ubi māgnus deus habitat.  
There you see the Capitol, the temple where the great god dwells.

**112** Ūnum nōs Deum habēmus; sed Rōmānī multōs deōs habent; multa igitur templa in māgnō oppidō sunt; dī enim suum quisque templum habent.  
We have one God; but the Romans have many gods; so there are many temples in the great city; for the gods each have their own temple.

**113** Ante templum stant altae columnae; hae tēctum sustinent.  
In front of the temple stand tall columns; these hold up the roof.

**114** Prope templum sunt multa aedificia, alia parva, alia māgna.  
Near the temple are many buildings, some small, some large.

**115** Mūrus validus tōtum oppidum cingit et in hōc mūrō sunt multae portae.  
A strong wall surrounds the whole city and in this wall are many gates.

**116** Viae ex oppidō per portās dūcunt.  
Roads lead out of the city through the gates.

**117** Via Latīna per portam Latīnam in Latium dūcit; Via Sacra praeter forum ad Capitōlium, templum sacrum, dūcit.  
The Latin Way leads through the Latin Gate into Latium; the Sacred Way leads past the forum to the Capitol, the sacred temple.

**118** Forum in mediō oppidō est.  
The forum is in the middle of the city.

**119** Extrā oppidum viae lātae et aequae sunt; sed intrā mūrum angustae et inīquae.  
Outside the city the roads are wide and level; but inside the wall narrow and rough.

**120** Campī lātī et apertī sunt.  
The fields are wide and open.

**121** In Campō Mārtiō virī puerīque lūdunt et sē exercent.  
In the Campus Martius men and boys play and exercise.

**122** Hīc stat Circus Māximus; ibi Rōmānī māgna spectācula vident; ibi equī currunt et virī pūgnant.  
Here stands the Circus Maximus; there the Romans see great shows; there horses race and men fight.

**123** Haec spectācula Rōmānī lūdōs vocant.  
These shows the Romans call games.

**124** Ubi Rōma stat?  
Where does Rome stand?

**125** Ubi dī habitant?  
Where do the gods dwell?

**126** Quot deōs nōs habēmus?  
How many gods do we have?

**127** Quae via ad Capitōlium dūcit?  
Which road leads to the Capitol?

**128** Quid columnae sustinent? Quālēs sunt?  
What do the columns hold up? What are they like?

**129** Quid tēctum sustinet?  
What holds up the roof?

**130** Quid oppidum cingit?  
What surrounds the city?

**131** Quid mūrus cingit?  
What does the wall surround?

**132** Quō dūcit via Latīna?  
Where does the Latin Way lead?

**133** Ubi virī sē exercent? Quis etiam ibi hoc facit?  
Where do the men exercise? Who else does this there?

**134** Scrībe contrārium: aequus, angustus, lūdō, exeō, abeō, campus, ager.  
Write the opposite: level, narrow, I play, I go out, I go away, field, ploughland.

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson X, §§79-81

§79. We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like bona, in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. Masculine adjectives of this class are declined like dominus, and neuters like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows:

MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE         NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
dominus bonus, the good master     pīlum bonum, the good spear
  BASES domin- bon-                    BASES pīl- bon-

                        TERMINATIONS               TERMINATIONS
        SINGULAR
Nom.    do´minus bonus       -us      pīlum bonum        -um
Gen.    dominī bonī          -ī       pīlī bonī         -ī
Dat.    dominō bonō          -ō       pīlō bonō         -ō
Acc.    dominum bonum        -um      pīlum bonum       -um
Abl.    dominō bonō          -ō       pīlō bonō         -ō
Voc.    domine bone          -e       pīlum bonum       -um

        PLURAL
Nom.    dominī bonī          -ī      pīla bona          -a
Gen.    dominō´rum bonō´rum  -ōrum    īlō´rum bonō´rum  -ōrum
Dat.    dominīs bonīs        -is      īlīs bonīs        -īs
Acc.    dominōs bonōs        -ōs     pīla bona          -a
Abl.    dominīs bonīs        -īs      īlīs bonīs        -īs

Decline together bellum longum, equus parvus, servus malus, mūrus altus, frūmentum novum.
```

```
§80. Observe the sentences

Lesbia ancilla est bona,
  Lesbia, the maidservant, is good
Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona,
  the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good
Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat,
  the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant

In these sentences ancilla, ancillae, and ancillam denote the class of persons to which Lesbia belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case.
```

```
§81. RULE. Apposition. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains.
```

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| Ibi | there, in that place |
| Capitōlium | the Capitol |
| deus | god |
| oppidō | town, from oppidum |
| quisque | each, each one |
| columnae | column, pillar, from columna |
| tēctum | roof |
| sustinent | sustain, from sustineo |
| validus | strong, able |
| cingit | surround, from cingo |
| Latīna | Latin, from Latinum |
| Latium | Latin, from Latius |
| Sacra | something consecrated, sacrifice, from sacrum |
| praeter | beyond, contrary to |
| forum | market place |
| aequae | even, level, from aequus |
| Mārtiō | of Mars, from Martius |
| virī | man, hero, from vir |
| exercent | practice, drill, from exerceo |
| Circus | race course |

## Give the forms: dūcō, cingō

**135** dūcō  
lead, command

**136** cingō  
surround

## Give the forms: cingō

**137** cingō  
surround

## Cāsus Genetīvus. Adverbium, the genitive case, and the adverb

### Adverbs and actions

Lentē ad lūdum ambulat means "he walks slowly to school."

Lentē is the adverb with ambulat and states how Brutus walks.

In the same line, male goes with facit, cito with currit, and bene with facere.

### Many adverbs end in -ē

Stultē semper omnia facis neque unquam studiōsē labōrās means "you always do everything stupidly and never work hard."

Many adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions add -ē to the adjective's base.

Lentē and studiōsē carry this ending.

The first column shows cārus becoming cārē, pulcher becoming pulchrē, and līber becoming līberē.

### From the book

**138** Camera.  
The room.

**139** Brūtus malus discipulus est; male pēnsum facit; lentē ad lūdum ambulat et saepe sērō venit, sed cito domum currit; nihil bene facere potest.  
Brutus is a bad pupil; he does his exercise badly; he walks slowly to school and often arrives late, but runs home quickly; he can do nothing well.

**140** In lūdō aut amīcē cum propinquō discipulō lūdit aut inimīcē pūgnat.  
In school he either plays in a friendly way with the pupil next to him or fights in an unfriendly one.

**141** Hodiē Brūtus noster tranquillē in sellā Sextī dormit, cum subitō Sextus cameram intrat et ita exclāmat: 'Ecce, ō magister!  
Today our Brutus is sleeping peacefully in Sextus's chair, when suddenly Sextus comes into the room and calls out: 'Look, master!

**142** Brūtus in meā sellā est.' Magister, 'Brūte!' inquit, 'removē tē Sextī ex sellā et tuam in sellam statim cōnsīde!  
Brutus is in my chair.' The master says, 'Brutus! get yourself out of Sextus's chair and sit down in your own at once!

**143** Nunc recitā!' Brutus lentē sē removet, sed, 'Nūllum librum,' inquit, 'hīc habeō.' Magister respondet: 'Mūrēnae ex librō recitā!' Mūrēnae igitur librum Brūtus capit et illīus ex librō recitāre incipit.  
Now recite!' Brutus slowly removes himself, but says, 'I have no book here.' The master answers: 'Recite from Murena's book!' So Brutus takes Murena's book and begins to recite from his book.

**144** Male autem recitat et magister ita exclāmat: 'Ō īgnāvē discipule, stultē semper omnia facis neque unquam studiōsē labōrās.  
But he recites badly, and the master calls out: 'You idle pupil, you always do everything stupidly and never work hard.

**145** Nōlī tam īgnāvus esse.  
Don't be so idle.

**146** Cēterī hūius lūdī discipulī suōs semper habent librōs, tū autem nunquam habēs tuum.  
The other pupils of this school always have their own books, but you never have yours.

**147** Exemplum ab illīs cape!  
Take an example from them!

**148** Tū semper illōrum in sellīs sedēs, illōrum librōs habēre vīs.  
You are always sitting in their chairs, you want to have their books.

**149** Venī ad mē!' Ō miserum Brūtum!  
Come to me!' Poor Brutus!

**150** Dum timidē surgit et ad mēnsam magistrī lentē appropinquat, inimīcī ēius spectāculum laetī spectant.  
While he timidly gets up and slowly approaches the master's table, his enemies gladly watch the spectacle.

**151** 'Properā!' inquit magister, et ferulam sūmit.  
'Hurry up!' says the master, and takes up the cane.

**152** Sī fluvius lentus est, quōmodo fluit?  
If a river is slow, how does it flow?

**153** Sī Ōceanus tranquillus est, quōmodo nauta Ōceanum trānsit?  
If the ocean is calm, how does the sailor cross the ocean?

**154** Sī sērō ad lūdum venīs, quōmodo ambulās?  
If you come to school late, how do you walk?

**155** Quōmodo studiōsī puerī labōrant?  
How do hard-working boys work?

**156** Quōmodo cum amīcō lūdis?  
How do you play with a friend?

**157** Quōmodo contrā inimīcum pūgnās?  
How do you fight against an enemy?

**158** Quālis puer īgnāvē labōrat?  
What sort of boy works idly?

**159** Quālis puer male omnia facit?  
What sort of boy does everything badly?

**160** Quālēs agricolae agrōs bene colunt?  
What sort of farmers till their fields well?

**161** Quōmodo lūdōs spectās?  
How do you watch the games?

**162** Cūius est haec camera?  
Whose is this room?

**163** Cūius est hic lūdus?  
Whose is this school?

**164** Quōrum est hic campus?  
Whose is this field?

**165** Quōrum patria est Britannia? Gallia? Germānia?  
Whose native land is Britain? Gaul? Germany?

**166** Cūius librum habēs?  
Whose book do you have?

**167** Cūius in sellā sedēs?  
In whose chair are you sitting?

**168** Cūius ex librō recitās?  
From whose book are you reciting?

**169** Cūius stilō nunc scrībis?  
With whose pen are you writing now?

**170** Cūius sella ante tuam sellam est?  
Whose chair is in front of your chair?

**171** Cūius sella post tuam est?  
Whose chair is behind yours?

**172** Cūius sella prope tuam est?  
Whose chair is near yours?

**173** Quōrum sellās circum tuam vidēs?  
Whose chairs do you see around yours?

**174** Cūius in sellā Brūtus dormit?  
In whose chair is Brutus sleeping?

**175** Quōrum in sellīs cēterī puerī sedent?  
In whose chairs are the other boys sitting?

**176** Cūius ex librō Brūtus recitat?  
From whose book does Brutus recite?

**177** Quōrum ex librīs cēterī puerī recitant?  
From whose books do the other boys recite?

**178** Quōrum librōs bonī puerī habent?  
Whose books do the good boys have?

**179** Cūius ad mēnsam Brutus appropinquat?  
Whose table does Brutus approach?

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson IV, §§35-38

§35. We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

Fīlia agricolae nautam amat,
  the farmer’s daughter (or the daughter of the farmer)
  loves the sailor

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?
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§36. RULE. Nominative Subject. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?
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§37. RULE. Accusative Object. The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?
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§38. RULE. Genitive of the Possessor. The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?
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§319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.
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§320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

        POSITIVE                COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    cārus, dear             cārior       cārissimus
Adv.    cārē, dearly            cārius       cārissimē

Adj.    pulcher, beautiful      pulchrior    pulcherrimus
Adv.    pulchrē, beautifully    pulchrius    pulcherrimē

Adj.    līber, free             līberior     līberrimus
Adv.    līberē, freely          līberius     līberrimē

a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -ē to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.
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§321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;[1] as,
[1] This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.

        POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    fortis, brave         fortior      fortissimus
Adv.    fortiter, bravely     fortius      fortissimē

Adj.    audāx, bold           audācior     audācissimus
Adv.    audācter, boldly      audācius     audācissimē
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§322. Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

Adj.    facilis, easy               prīmus, first
Adv.    facile (acc.), easily       prīmum (acc.), first
                                    prīmō (abl.), at first
Adj.    multus, many                plūrimus, most
Adv.    multum (acc.), much         plūrimum (acc.), most
        multō (abl.), by much
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§323. Learn the following irregular comparisons:

bene, well             melius, better      optimē, best
diū, long (time)     diūtius, longer     diūtissimē, longest
magnopere, greatly     magis, more         maximē, most
parum, little          minus, less         minimē, least
prope, nearly, near    propius, nearer     proximē, nearest
saepe, often           saepius, oftener    saepissimē, oftenest
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§324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: laetus, superbus, molestus, amīcus, ācer, brevis, gravis, recēns.
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§325. RULE. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
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§327. The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows:

1. Cardinal Numerals, answering the question how many? as, ūnus, one; duo, two; etc.

2. Ordinal Numerals, derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question in what order? as, prīmus, first; secundus, second; etc.

3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singulī, one at a time.
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§328. The Cardinal Numerals. The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows:

1, ūnus         6, sex        11, ūndecim          16, sēdecim
2, duo          7, septem     12, duodecim         17, septendecim
3, trēs         8, octō       13, tredecim         18, duodēvīgintī
4, quattuor     9, novem      14, quattuordecim    19, ūndēvīgintī
5, quīnque     10, decem      15, quīndecim        20, vīgintī

a. Learn also centum = 100, ducentī = 200, mīlle = 1000.
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§329. Declension of the Cardinals. Of the cardinals only ūnus, duo, trēs, the hundreds above one hundred, and mīlle used as a noun, are declinable.

a. ūnus is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like nūllus (cf. §§109, 470). The plural of ūnus is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, ūna castra, one camp; and with other nouns in the sense of only, as, Gallī ūnī, only the Gauls.

b. Learn the declension of duo, two; trēs, three; and mīlle, a thousand. (§479.)

c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of bonus; as,

ducentī,    -ae,   -a
ducentōrum, -ārum, -ōrum
  etc.        etc.   etc.
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§330. We have already become familiar with sentences like the following:

Omnium avium aquila est vēlōcissima
  Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest
Hoc ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum
  This oracle was the most famous of all

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a partitive genitive.
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§331. RULE. Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the partitive genitive.

a. Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting mīlle regularly take the ablative with ex or dē instead of the partitive genitive.

b. Mīlle, a thousand, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, mīlle mīlitēs, a thousand soldiers), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, decem mīlia mīlitum, ten thousand soldiers).

EXAMPLES:

Fortissimī hōrum sunt Germānī
  The bravest of these are the Germans
Decem mīlia hostium interfecta sunt
  Ten thousand (lit. thousands) of the enemy were slain
Ūna ex captīvīs erat soror rēgis
  One of the captives was the king’s sister
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| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| malus | bad |
| lentē | bend under strain, from lenteo |
| saepe | often |
| sērō | late, at a late hour |
| cito | quickly, with speed |
| nihil | nothing |
| propinquō | near, neighboring, from propinquus |
| Hodiē | to-day |
| subitō | suddenly |
| removē | move back, from removeo |
| statim | immediately, at once |
| Mūrēnae | kind of eel, the moray, from Murena |
| capit | take, seize, from capio |
| īgnāvē | lazy, from ignavus |
| semper | always |
| unquam | ever, at any time, from umquam |
| Nōlī | not to wish, be unwilling, from nolo |
| tam | so |
| nunquam | never, from numquam |
| Exemplum | example, model |
| miserum | wretched, unfortunate, from miser |
| appropinquat | approach, from appropinquo |
| inimīcī | hostile, from inimicus |
| laetī | happy, glad, from laetus |
| Properā | quick, speedy, from properus |
| ferulam | stick, rod, from ferula |
| lentus | clinging, tough |
| Ōceanus | Ocean |
| tranquillus | quiet, calm |
| trānsit | go over, cross, from transeo |
| studiōsī | eager, keen, from studiosus |
| contrā | against, contrary to |