# Prīmus et Secundus Annus, Lēctiōnēs 30–36 Prīmus Annus II Vīlla Cornēliāna; Horātius pontem dēfendit; Nāvis; Mārcus Rūra Cornēlī dēscrībit; Rūra Cornēlī; Iter Hannibalis Source: https://1732studios.com/courses/la/5. Data: https://1732studios.com/courses/la/5.json. ## III Dēclīnātiō, the third declension ### Soldiers in two cases Multōs mīlitēs in bellō dūcēbat means "He led many soldiers in war." Dux erat multōrum mīlitum means "He was the leader of many soldiers." The genitive marks an owner or possessor. mīlitēs is accusative plural, while mīlitum is genitive plural. ### mīles adds -s mīles adds -s to its base in the nominative singular. Before -s, the final -t drops and the base vowel changes. The genitive singular mīlitis reveals the base mīlit- when -is is removed. The forms of mīles show mīlit- with the masculine and feminine endings outside the nominative singular. ### mīlit- ### māter adds no ending Quattuor omnēs Scīpiōnem patrem, Semprōniam mātrem vocant means "All four call Scipio father, Sempronia mother." māter adds no ending in the nominative singular. Its accusative singular mātrem has -em, the same ending as mīlitem. Masculine and feminine consonant stems take the same endings outside the nominative singular, whether the nominative adds -s or no ending. **1** Gāius Cornēlius Scīpiō in hāc vīllā habitat. Gaius Cornelius Scipio lives in this villa. **2** Uxor Cornēlī est Semprōnia. Cornelius's wife is Sempronia. **3** Hī duōs fīliōs et duās fīliās habent. They have two sons and two daughters. **4** Duōbus fīliīs nōmina sunt Mārcus et Titus; hic duōs annōs nātus est, ille duodecim annōs. The two sons' names are Marcus and Titus; the latter is two years old, the former twelve. **5** Fīliae ambae, Cornēliae, nōmen patris habent. Both daughters, the Corneliae, have their father's name. **6** Fīliī sunt frātrēs Cornēliārum; hae sunt sorōrēs Mārcī et Titī. The sons are the brothers of the Corneliae; these are the sisters of Marcus and Titus. **7** Quattuor omnēs Scīpiōnem patrem, Semprōniam mātrem vocant. All four call Scipio father, Sempronia mother. **8** Cornēlius saepe contrā barbarōs pūgnāvit; mīles fuit. Cornelius has often fought against barbarians; he was a soldier. **9** Multōs mīlitēs in bellō dūcēbat; dux erat multōrum mīlitum. He led many soldiers in war; he was the leader of many soldiers. **10** Hōc autem tempore Rōmānī pācem habent. At this time, however, the Romans are at peace. **11** Domī igitur Cornēlius cum familiā manet. So Cornelius stays at home with his family. **12** Mārcus etiam, cum nōn iam puer erit, in capite galeam nitidam mīles geret; Rōmānae legiōnis dux erit. Marcus too, when he is no longer a boy, will wear a shining helmet on his head as a soldier; he will be the leader of a Roman legion. **13** Iam multum sē exercuit; validum igitur corpus habet; cum vir erit, bene pūgnāre poterit. He has already trained a great deal; so he has a strong body; when he is a man, he will be able to fight well. **14** Iam multum cucurrit; valida igitur crūra et validōs pedēs habet: mīlitēs Rōmānōs contrā barbarōs cito dūcet. He has already run a great deal; so he has strong legs and strong feet: he will lead the Roman soldiers swiftly against the barbarians. **15** Quot patrēs, frātrēs, sorōrēs, mātrēs habēs? How many fathers, brothers, sisters, mothers do you have? **16** Quot nōmina habēs? How many names do you have? **17** Quot nōmina Rōmānus habēbat? Scrībe exemplum. How many names did a Roman man have? Write an example. **18** Quot nōmina Rōmāna habēbat? Scrībe exemplum. How many names did a Roman woman have? Write an example. **19** Quis patriam dēfendit in terrā? et in Ōceanō? Who defends the native land on land? and on the ocean? **20** Quot crūra, corpora, pedēs, capita habēs? How many legs, bodies, feet, heads do you have? **21** Ubi mīlitēs galeam gerunt? Where do soldiers wear a helmet? **22** Sī tū multum cucurristī, quālia crūra habēs? If you have run a great deal, what sort of legs do you have? **23** Sī multum saluistī, quālēs pedēs habēs? If you have jumped a great deal, what sort of feet do you have? **24** Sī tē multum exercuistī, quāle corpus habēs? If you have trained a great deal, what sort of body do you have? **25** Quandō mīlitēs nōn pugnant? When do soldiers not fight? **26** Quot mīlitēs in ūnā legiōne erant? How many soldiers were there in one legion? **27** Contrā quōs Cornēlius mīlitēs Rōmānōs dūcēbat? Against whom did Cornelius lead the Roman soldiers? **28** Quōmodo vocātur fīlia Mārcī Tullī Cicerōnis? What is the daughter of Marcus Tullius Cicero called? **29** Quōmodo pater Semprōniae vocātur? What is Sempronia's father called? ``` D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXIX, §§230-233 §230. Bases and Stems. In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the base. If to the base we add -ā in the first declension, and -o in the second, we get what is called the stem. Thus porta has the base port- and the stem portā-; servus has the base serv- and the stem servo-. These stem vowels, -ā- and -o-, play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the Ā- and O-Declensions. ``` ``` §231. Nouns of the Third Declension. The third declension is called the Consonant or I-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the stem ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a consonant stem; if the stem ends in -i-, the word is said to have an i-stem. In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In i-stems the stem is formed by adding -i- to the base. The presence of the i makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one. ``` ``` §232. Consonant stems are divided into two classes: I. Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular. II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular. CLASS I ``` ``` §233. Stems that add -s to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows: prīnceps, mīles, m., lapis, m., chief soldier m., stone BASES OR STEMS prīncip- mīlit- lapid- SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. Nom. prīnceps mīles lapis -s Gen. prīn´cipis mīlitis lapidis -is Dat. prīn´cipī mīlitī lapidī -ī Acc. prīn´cipem mīlitem lapidem -em Abl. prīn´cipe mīlite lapide -e PLURAL Nom. prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs Gen. prīn´cipum mīlitum lapidum -um Dat. prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus Acc. prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs Abl. prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus rēx, iūdex, virtūs, f., m., king m.,judge manliness BASES OR STEMS rēg- iūdic- virtūt- SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. Nom. rēx iūdex virtūs -s Gen. rēgis iūdicis virtū´tis -is Dat. rēgī iūdicī virtū´tī -ī Acc. rēgem iūdicem virtū´tem -em Abl. rēge iūdice virtū´te -e PLURAL Nom. rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs Gen. rēgum iūdicum virtū´tum -um Dat. rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus Acc. rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs Abl. rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus 1. The base or stem is found by dropping -is in the genitive singular. 2. Most nouns of two syllables, like prīnceps (prīncip-), mīles (mīlit-), iūdex (iūdic-), have i in the base, but e in the nominative. a. lapis is an exception to this rule. 3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative: a. A final -t or -d is dropped before -s; thus mīles for mīlets, lapis for lapids, virtūs for virtūts. b. A final -c or -g unites with -s and forms -x; thus iūdec + s = iūdex, rēg + s = rēx. 4. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension. In like manner decline dux, ducis, m., leader; eques, equitis, m., horseman; pedes, peditis, m., foot soldier; pēs, pedis, m.,foot. ``` ``` §235. Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add -s. They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter. ``` ``` §236. PARADIGMS MASCULINES AND FEMININES cōnsul, legiō, f., ōrdō, pater, m., m., consul legion m., row father BASES OR STEMS cōnsul- legiōn- ōrdin- patr- SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. Nom. cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater -- Gen. cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is Dat. cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī Acc. cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em Abl. cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e PLURAL Nom. cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs Gen. cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um Dat. cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus Acc. cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs Abl. cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus 1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way. 2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ōn- drop -n- and end in -ō in the nominative, as legiō (base or stem legiōn-), ōrdō (base or stem ōrdin-). 3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-). 4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. Always learn this with the nominative. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | vīllā | farm, villa | | Uxor | wife | | Semprōnia | Sempronian, from Sempronius | | fīliās | daughter, from filia | | nōmina | name, from nomen | | patris | father, from pater | | frātrēs | brother, from frater | | sorōrēs | sister, from soror | | mātrem | mother, from mater | | mīles | soldier | | bellō | war, from bellum | | dux | leader | | familiā | servants, slaves | | capite | head, from caput | | nitidam | shining, bright, from nitidus | | legiōnis | legion, from legio | | corpus | body | | crūra | leg, from crus | | pedēs | foot, from pes | ## Give the forms: Scīpiō, pater **30** Scīpiō Scipio **31** pater father ## Give the forms: pater, mīles **32** pater father **33** mīles soldier ## Give the forms: nōmen **34** nōmen name ## III Dēclīnātiō, the third declension ### One form serves two cases In inter eōs et urbem Rōmam flūmen Tiberis fluēbat, flūmen means "river." Flūmen is the nominative subject of fluēbat. In contrā tōtum hostium āgmen, āgmen is accusative after contrā. Both nouns are third-declension neuters. Their case changes, but their singular form does not. ### No ending marks either case Neuter consonant stems add no ending in the nominative singular or the accusative singular. The flūmen table shows flūmen as both nominative and accusative singular. ### flūmin- **35** Mārcus multa iam didicit dē clārīs antīquōrum Rōmānōrum proeliīs; hanc dē Horātiō fābulam māximē amat. Marcus has already learned much about the famous battles of the ancient Romans; this story about Horatius he loves most of all. **36** Etruscī, gēns valida, prope montēs Āppennīnōs habitābant; inter eōs et urbem Rōmam flūmen Tiberis fluēbat. The Etruscans, a strong people, lived near the Apennine mountains; between them and the city of Rome flowed the river Tiber. **37** Ōlim Porsenna, rēx hūius gentis, bellum contrā Rōmānōs gerēbat et ad pontem Sublicium māgnō āgmine advēnit. Once Porsenna, king of this people, was waging war against the Romans and arrived at the Sublician bridge with a great army. **38** Cīvēs Rōmānī ad arcem, altam partem urbis, fūgērunt, sed pontem nōn frēgērunt. The Roman citizens fled to the citadel, the high part of the city, but did not break the bridge. **39** Nisi quis pontem franget, hostēs flūmen trānsīre portamque urbis oppūgnāre poterunt. Unless someone breaks the bridge, the enemy will be able to cross the river and attack the city gate. **40** Quis nunc ex arce dēscendere vult? Who now wants to come down from the citadel? **41** Trēs ducēs hoc prō patriā facere volunt. Three leaders want to do this for their native land. **42** Horātius Cocles, Spurius Lartius, Titus Herminius ad portam dēcurrērunt et contrā tōtum hostium āgmen pontem dēfendere incēpērunt. Horatius Cocles, Spurius Lartius, Titus Herminius ran down to the gate and began to defend the bridge against the whole army of the enemy. **43** Hostēs eōs oppūgnant; illī diū resistunt. The enemy attack them; they hold out for a long time. **44** Intereā aliī mīlitēs Rōmānī partem pontis frangunt. Meanwhile other Roman soldiers break part of the bridge. **45** Pōns adhūc stābat, cum Horātius duōs sociōs intrā moenia dīmīsit. The bridge was still standing when Horatius sent his two companions back inside the walls. **46** Sōlus in angustō ponte contrā tria mīlia hostium pūgnābat. Alone on the narrow bridge he fought against three thousand of the enemy. **47** Subitō clāmōrem audīvit; cīvēs enim, proeliī spectātōrēs, clāmāvērunt: 'Frāctus est pōns! Suddenly he heard a shout; for the citizens, spectators of the battle, shouted: 'The bridge is broken! **48** Dēsilī nunc, Horātī!' Ille dē extrēmō ponte in medium flūmen dēsiluit et ad moenia natāvit. Jump down now, Horatius!' He leaped from the end of the bridge into the middle of the river and swam to the walls. **49** Ibi multī cīvēs ducem ex aquā fūnibus trāxērunt. There many citizens pulled the leader out of the water with ropes. **50** Hōc modō Horātius urbem servāvit. In this way Horatius saved the city. **51** Quandō cīvis erat Rōmānus? Quandō mīles? When was a Roman a citizen? When a soldier? **52** Quō omnēs cīvēs fūgērunt? Where did all the citizens flee? **53** Quis ex arce dēscendere voluit? Who wanted to come down from the citadel? **54** Nārrā aliquid dē Porsennā. Tell something about Porsenna. **55** Quis nunc rēx est Britannōrum? Who is now king of the Britons? **56** Quā viā hostēs flūmen trānsīre volēbant? By what way did the enemy want to cross the river? **57** Quō Horātius sociōs suōs dīmīsit? Where did Horatius send his companions? **58** Quō īnstrūmentō cīvēs ducem ex aquā trāxērunt? With what instrument did the citizens pull the leader out of the water? **59** Cīvisne est pater tuus an mīles? Is your father a citizen or a soldier? **60** Sī quis mīlitēs ducit, quōmodo vocātur? If someone leads soldiers, what is he called? **61** Sī quis populum regit, quōmodo vocātur? If someone rules a people, what is he called? **62** Nārrā aliquid dē Etruscīs. Tell something about the Etruscans. **63** Quae proelia Cornēlius Mārcō nārrābat? Which battles did Cornelius tell Marcus about? **64** Sī mūrus validus urbem dēfendit, quōmodo vocātur? If a strong wall defends a city, what is it called? **65** Agricola et fīlius ēius lūdōs spectant; quōmodo vocantur? A farmer and his son watch the games; what are they called? ``` D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XL, §§235-236 §235. Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add -s. They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter. ``` ``` §238. Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows: flūmen, tempus, opus, caput, n., river n., time n., work n., head BASES OR STEMS flūmin- tempor- oper- capit- SINGULAR TERMINATIONS Nom. flūmen tempus opus caput -- Gen. flūminis temporis operis capitis -is Dat. flūminī temporī operī capitī -ī Acc. flūmen tempus opus caput -- Abl. flūmine tempore opere capite -e PLURAL Nom. flūmina tempora opera capita -a Gen. flūminum temporum operum capitum -um Dat. flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus Acc. flūmina tempora opera capita -a Abl. flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus 1. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension. 2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flūmen, base or stem flūmin-. 3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | dē | down from | | clārīs | clear, from clarus | | antīquōrum | men of old, ancients, from antiqui | | proeliīs | battle, from proelium | | amat | love, like, from amo | | gēns | race, tribe | | montēs | mountain, from mons | | urbem | city, from urbs | | flūmen | river | | Tiberis | Tiber | | rēx | king | | pontem | bridge, from pons | | Sublicium | resting on, from sublicius | | āgmine | line of march, column, from agmen | | advēnit | come to, arrive, from advenio | | Cīvēs | citizen, from civis | | arcem | citadel, stronghold, from arx | | partem | part, region, from pars | | frēgērunt | break, shatter, from frango | | Nisi | unless, if ... not | | hostēs | enemy, from hostis | | Spurius | bastard, son of an unknown | | dēcurrērunt | run, from decurro | | resistunt | pause, from resisto | | Intereā | meanwhile | | adhūc | hitherto, as yet | | moenia | walls, fortifications | | dīmīsit | send away, dismiss, from dimitto | | mīlia | thousand, from mille | | clāmōrem | shout, clamor, from clamor | | spectātōrēs | spectator, from spectator | | dēsiluit | leap down, dismount, from desilio | | fūnibus | rope, from funis | | trāxērunt | drag, draw, from traho | | modō | measure, from modus | | servāvit | save, preserve, from servo | | aliquid | anyone, from aliquis | | regit | govern, rule, from rego | ## Give the forms: gēns, urbs **66** gēns race, tribe, nation **67** urbs city ## Give the forms: urbs, cīvis **68** urbs city **69** cīvis citizen ## Give the forms: rēx, flūmen **70** rēx king **71** flūmen river ## Give the forms: flūmen **72** flūmen river ## Prōnōmen Relātīvum, the relative pronoun ### The relative has its own case Cornēlius Mārcum, quī nāvēs vidēre volēbat, Ōstium dūxit means "Cornelius took Marcus, who wanted to see the ships, to Ostia." Quī is nominative because it is the subject of volēbat in its own clause. Magister nāvis, quem in prōrā Mārcus videt, rēmigibus nautīsque iussa dat. It means "The ship's master, whom Marcus sees in the bow, gives orders to the rowers and sailors." Quem is accusative because it is the direct object of videt in its own clause. The forms of quī show every case, number, and gender. ### The forms of quī ### Gender and number come from the antecedent Quī and its antecedent Mārcum are masculine singular. Their cases differ because each has a different use in its own clause. Quem and its antecedent magister are also masculine singular. Quem is accusative, while magister is nominative. A relative agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. Its own clause determines its case. **73** Cornēlius Mārcum, quī nāvēs vidēre volēbat, Ōstium dūxit. Cornelius took Marcus, who wanted to see the ships, to Ostia. **74** In rīpā Tiberis stant, et mare caeruleum ante oculōs eōrum iacet. They stand on the bank of the Tiber, and the blue sea lies before their eyes. **75** Eō tempore, quō adveniunt, nāvis ad ōstium Tiberis ā dextrā appropinquat. At the moment they arrive, a ship is approaching the mouth of the Tiber from the right. **76** Rēmigēs in trānstrīs sedent, quia ventus adversus est, nāvemque lentē prōpellunt. The rowers sit on the benches, because the wind is against them, and slowly drive the ship forward. **77** Magister nāvis, quem in prōrā Mārcus videt, rēmigibus nautīsque iussa dat. The ship's master, whom Marcus sees in the bow, gives orders to the rowers and sailors. **78** Gubernātor, quī in puppī stat, gubernāculum vertit, et nāvis flūmen intrat. The helmsman, who stands in the stern, turns the rudder, and the ship enters the river. **79** Nunc secundus est ventus; nautae igitur rēmōs pōnunt et vēla in mālum fūnibus ērigunt. Now the wind is favourable; so the sailors put down the oars and hoist the sails on the mast with ropes. **80** Ventus vēla implet, et nāvis cito it. The wind fills the sails, and the ship goes swiftly. **81** Tum Mārcus dē nāve, quae iam eum praeterībat, multa rogāre incēpit; cuī pater omnia ita exposuit: Then Marcus began to ask many things about the ship, which was already passing him; and his father explained everything to him thus: **82** Prōra est ea pars nāvis quam ā fronte vidēs. The bow is the part of the ship you see from the front. **83** Rōstrum est ea pars prōrae quae mare secat. The beak is the part of the bow that cuts the sea. **84** Puppis est ea pars nāvis in quā stat gubernātor. The stern is the part of the ship in which the helmsman stands. **85** Gubernātor est is quem in puppī vidēmus. The helmsman is the one we see in the stern. **86** Gubernāculum est id quō ille nāvem gubernat. The rudder is the thing with which he steers the ship. **87** Rēmigēs sunt nautae quī in trānstrīs sedent. The rowers are the sailors who sit on the benches. **88** Rēmī sunt ea quibus rēmigant. The oars are the things with which they row. **89** Mālus est id cuī fūnēs vela coniungunt. The mast is the thing to which the ropes join the sails. **90** Vēla sunt ea quae ventus implet. The sails are the things the wind fills. **91** Ventus, quī vēla implet, secundus est. The wind that fills the sails is favourable. **92** Trānstra sunt sellae ubi rēmigēs sedent. The benches are the seats where the rowers sit. **93** Massilia est oppidum unde nāvis exiit. Marseilles is the town the ship came out from. **94** Ōstium est oppidum quō nāvis adit. Ostia is the town the ship is going to. **95** Deinde Mārcus, nōndum contentus, rogat: 'Cūius est nāvis?' 'Is, cūius navis est, magister vocātur, sed nōmen ēius īgnōrō.' Tum Mārcus, 'Ego,' inquit, 'magister nāvis erō.' Then Marcus, not yet satisfied, asks: 'Whose is the ship?' 'The one whose ship it is is called the master, but I don't know his name.' Then Marcus says, 'I shall be a ship's master.' **96** Quōmodo vocātur is quī agrum colit? is quī discit? is quī pūgnat? id quō scrībis? id quod scrībis? id quō rēmex rēmigat? pōns quem Horātius dēfendēbat? ventus quī vēla nōn implet? pars urbis quō cīvēs fūgērunt? ea quae fīliōs habet? What is he called who tills a field? he who learns? he who fights? the thing you write with? the thing you write? the thing a rower rows with? the bridge Horatius defended? a wind that does not fill the sails? the part of the city the citizens fled to? she who has sons? **97** Quōmodo vocantur membra quibus pūgnās? tēla quae Rōmanī iaciēbant? sellae ubi rēmigēs sedent? eī quī pontem cum Horātiō dēfendēbant? hostēs contrā quōs pūgnābant? eī quī dūcunt? eae quae frātrēs habent? ea quae agricola et fīlius ēius spectābant? What are they called, the limbs you fight with? the weapons the Romans threw? the seats where rowers sit? those who defended the bridge with Horatius? the enemies against whom they fought? those who lead? women who have brothers? the things the farmer and his son watched? ``` D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXVIII, §§219-227 §219. Sentences are simple, compound, or complex. a. A simple sentence is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: The Romans approached the town. b. A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more independent statements: The Romans approached the town | and | the enemy fled. NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement. c. A complex sentence is a sentence containing one independent statement and one or more dependent statements: When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled. NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus the enemy fled is independent, and when the Romans approached the town is dependent or subordinate. d. The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called clauses. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the main clause and the dependent statement the subordinate clause. ``` ``` §220. Examine the complex sentence The Romans killed the men who were taken Here are two clauses: a. The main clause, The Romans killed the men b. The subordinate clause, who were taken The word who is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun men. It also connects the subordinate clause who were taken with the noun men. Hence the clause is an adjective clause. A pronoun that connects an adjective clause with a substantive is called a relative pronoun, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The relative pronouns in English are who, whose, whom, which, what, that. ``` ``` §221. The relative pronoun in Latin is quī, quae, quod, and it is declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. quī quae quod quī quae quae Gen. cuius cuius cuius quōrum quārum quōrum Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Acc. quem quam quod quōs quās quae Abl. quō quā quō quibus quibus quibus 1. Review the declension of is, §114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms quī, quae, and quibus are the only forms showing new endings. NOTE. The genitive cuius and the dative cui are pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os (two syllables) and co͝oi (one syllable). ``` ``` §222. The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:[1] [1] This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. who, that which, what, that Gen. of whom, whose of which, of what, whose Dat. to or for whom to or for which, to or for what Acc. whom, that which, what, that Abl. from, etc., whom from, etc., which or what a. We see from the table above that quī, when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of who or by that; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by which, what, or that. ``` ``` §223. Note the following sentences: The Romans killed the men who were taken The Romans killed the woman who was taken Rōmānī interfēcērunt virōs quī captī sunt Rōmānī interfēcērunt fēminam quae capta est In the first sentence who (quī) refers to the antecedent men (virōs), and is masculine plural. In the second, who (quae) refers to woman (fēminam), and feminine singular. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. Virōs and fēminam are accusatives, and quī and quae are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence ``` ``` §224. RULE. Agreement of the Relative. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause. ``` ``` §225. Interrogative Pronouns. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are who? which? what? In Latin they are quis? quid? (pronoun) and quī? quae? quod? (adjective). ``` ``` §226. Examine the sentences a. Who is the man? Quis est vir? b. What man is leading them? Quī vir eōs dūcit? In a, who is an interrogative pronoun. In b, what is an interrogative adjective. Observe that in Latin quis, quid is the pronoun and quī, quae, quod is the adjective. ``` ``` §227. 1. The interrogative adjective quī, quae, quod is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.) 2. The interrogative pronoun quis, quid is declined like quī, quae, quod in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows: MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. quis, who? quid, what? which? Gen. cuius, whose? cuius, whose? Dat. cui, to or for whom? cui, to or for what or which? Acc. quem, whom? quid, what? which? Abl. quō, from, etc., whom? quō, from, etc., which or what? NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | nāvēs | ship, from navis | | Ōstium | doorway | | mare | sea | | Rēmigēs | oarsman, rower, from remex | | trānstrīs | crossbeam, from transtrum | | ventus | wind | | adversus | opposite | | prōpellunt | drive forward, from propello | | prōrā | prow | | iussa | order, command, from jussum | | Gubernātor | pilot | | puppī | stern, from puppis | | gubernāculum | helm, rudder | | rēmōs | oar, from remus | | vēla | sail, covering, from velum | | mālum | mallow-plant | | ērigunt | raise, erect, from erigo | | implet | fill up, from impleo | | praeterībat | pass, from praetereo | | rogāre | ask, ask for, from rogo | | exposuit | set, from expono | | Rōstrum | beak, curved bow | | secat | follow, from sequor | | gubernat | steer, drive, from guberno | | Rēmī | oar | | rēmigant | row, use oars, from remigo | | vela | sail, covering | | coniungunt | join together, from conjungo | | contentus | strain, struggle, from contendo | | Cūius | whose?, from cujus | | īgnōrō | not know | ## Adiectīva III Dēclīnātiōnis, adjectives of the third declension ### -is for masculine, -e for neuter Canem autem meum amō, quia fidēlis est means I love my dog because he is faithful. Docile enim animal est means for he is a teachable animal. Fidēlis agrees with masculine canem. Docile agrees with neuter animal. ### Two nominative endings Third-declension adjectives in -is use -is for masculine and feminine nominative singular, but -e for neuter. Omnis and omne give both endings of one adjective. Their tables give its masculine, feminine, and neuter singular cases. ### Masc. and fem ### Neut ### One nominative form Rapācēs sunt hae avēs means these birds are greedy. A one-ending adjective has one nominative singular form for all three genders. Its genders differ only in the accusative singular and the nominative and accusative plural. The pār table gives the singular forms. ### Third-declension agreement in -ia Carmina et trīstia et dulcia sibi ovibusque cantat means he sings songs, both sad and sweet, to himself and his sheep. The adjectives trīstia and dulcia agree with carmina as neuter plural accusatives. Third-declension adjectives use -ia here. ### Third-declension agreement in -ī Quae trīstī vōce eōs vocābant means who called them with a sad voice. The adjective trīstī agrees with vōce as feminine ablative singular, though their endings differ. The third-declension adjective takes -ī. **98** Pater meus est dīves; nam multōs et fertilēs agrōs et innumerās pecudēs habet. My father is rich; for he has many fertile fields and countless cattle. **99** Herī ōtium agēbam et post prandium per rūra nostra errābam. Yesterday I had a holiday and after lunch I was wandering through our countryside. **100** Domō exībam, cum duae columbae dē tēctō dēvolāvērunt et in meīs umerīs cōnsēdērunt. I was going out of the house when two doves flew down from the roof and settled on my shoulders. **101** Gallī et gallīnae circum pedēs meōs currēbant, quibus omnibus cibum dedī. Cocks and hens were running around my feet, and to all of them I gave food. **102** Rapācēs sunt hae avēs; semper enim, dum hūc illūc lentē errant, rōstra in humum trūdunt et cibum petunt; sī alia cibum invenit, aliae statim occurrunt et dē cibō pūgnant. These birds are greedy; for always, as they wander slowly here and there, they thrust their beaks into the ground and look for food; if one finds food, the others at once run up and fight over the food. **103** Ūtilēs autem sunt, quod ōva et dulcem carnem nōbīs dant. But they are useful, because they give us eggs and sweet meat. **104** Animālia tamen quae nōn fidēlia sunt nōn amō; nisi enim frūmentum mēcum habeō, gallīnae mē vītant neque, cum eās vocō, veniunt. Yet I do not love animals that are not faithful; for unless I have grain with me, the hens avoid me and do not come when I call them. **105** Canem autem meum amō, quia fidēlis est et, cum per rūra nostra ambulō, semper mēcum venit; neque avēs occīdere vult, docile enim animal est, et gallīnās nōn occīdere saepe eum docuī. But I love my dog, because he is faithful and, when I walk through our countryside, always comes with me; nor does he want to kill the birds, for he is a teachable animal, and I have often taught him not to kill the hens. **106** Nōvistīne canis meī nōmen? Do you know my dog's name? **107** Rūfum eum vocō, quia rubram habet pellem. I call him Rufus, because he has a red coat. **108** Quis hanc fābulam nārrat? Who tells this story? **109** Quod animal docile est? Which animal is teachable? **110** Quae carō dulcis est? Which meat is sweet? **111** Quae avis rapāx est? Which bird is greedy? **112** Quōmodo gallīnae ūtilēs sunt? How are hens useful? **113** Quae animālia nōn fidēlia sunt? Which animals are not faithful? **114** Quālēs sunt eī quī multōs agrōs habent? What are those like who have many fields? **115** Quālis est is quī amīcum semper amat? What is he like who always loves his friend? **116** Scrībe ea nōmina animālium quae nōvistī. Write the names of the animals you know. **117** Quae ex hīs animālibus docilia sunt? Which of these animals are teachable? **118** Quae nōbīs ūtilia sunt? Which are useful to us? **119** Quōmodo equus nōbīs ūtilis est? How is a horse useful to us? **120** Quid in camerā nostrā ūtile est? What in our room is useful? **121** Quālēs agrī nōbīs ūtilēs sunt? What sort of fields are useful to us? **122** Explicā vocābula: dīves, docilis, fidēlis, avis, gallus. Explain the words: rich, teachable, faithful, bird, cock. **123** Deinde ego et canis per rūra īvimus, ubi servī nostrī labōrābant. Then the dog and I went through the countryside, where our slaves were working. **124** Arātor agrum arābat; arātrum trahēbant duo bovēs, quōrum colla iugō coniūncta erant. A ploughman was ploughing a field; two oxen were pulling the plough, their necks joined by a yoke. **125** In proximō agrō pāstōrem vīdimus. In the next field we saw a shepherd. **126** Senex pauper est et plērumque sōlus sedet; itaque carmina et trīstia et dulcia sibi ovibusque cantat. The old man is poor and mostly sits alone; and so he sings songs, both sad and sweet, to himself and his sheep. **127** Circum pāstōrem grēx ovium lentē errābat. Around the shepherd a flock of sheep wandered slowly. **128** Parvī āgnī procul ā mātribus saliēbant, quae trīstī vōce eōs vocābant; sed canis noster, animal sagāx, eōs ad mātrēs mox redēgit. Little lambs were leaping about far from their mothers, who called them with a sad voice; but our dog, a clever animal, soon drove them back to their mothers. **129** Alium agrum intrābam, cum taurus ingēns in mē incurrere incēpit. I was entering another field when a huge bull began to charge at me. **130** Semper saevus est hic taurus; ego igitur cum cane, quī nōn audāx est, sī taurum prope sē videt, domum fūgī. This bull is always fierce; so I fled home with the dog, who is not bold if he sees a bull near him. **131** Ecce, trēs suēs in hortum errāvērunt! Look, three pigs have wandered into the garden! **132** Māgnīs clāmōribus eās expellere volēbam, sed difficile est suēs docēre; hae saltem id quod imperābam facere nōlēbant. With loud shouts I wanted to drive them out, but it is difficult to teach pigs; these at least would not do what I ordered. **133** Baculum igitur sine morā sūmpsī et cum cane illa stulta animālia ex hortō expulī. So without delay I took a stick and with the dog drove those stupid animals out of the garden. **134** Quae animālia sagācia sunt? Quae stulta? Which animals are clever? Which stupid? **135** Quandō nōn audācēs sumus? When are we not bold? **136** Quis ovēs agēbat? Quis āgnōs redēgit? Who was driving the sheep? Who drove the lambs back? **137** Quāle carmen pāstor cantābat? What sort of song was the shepherd singing? **138** Quālēs hominēs sunt pāstōrēs? What sort of men are shepherds? **139** Quōmodo Mārcus suēs expellere volēbat? Quōmodo ovēs āgnōs vocābant? How did Marcus want to drive out the pigs? How did the sheep call their lambs? **140** Estne facile an difficile asinum docēre? equum docēre? Is it easy or difficult to teach a donkey? to teach a horse? **141** Quālia carmina tū amās? What sort of songs do you love? **142** Cūr pāstor semper cantat? Why does the shepherd always sing? **143** Quā viā suēs īre semper volunt? By what way do pigs always want to go? **144** Cūr canis domum fūgit? Why did the dog flee home? **145** Quandō Mārcus timidus fuit? Quandō audāx? When was Marcus timid? When bold? **146** Estne hoc pēnsum facile? Is this exercise easy? ``` D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XLV, §§250-257 §250. Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like bonus, aeger, or līber), or they are of the third declension. ``` ``` §251. Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have i-stems, and they are declined almost like nouns with i-stems. ``` ``` §252. Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, bonus, m.; bona, f.; bonum, n. Such an adjective is called an adjective of three endings. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes: I. Adjectives of three endings-- a different form in the nominative for each gender. II. Adjectives of two endings-- masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different. III. Adjectives of one ending-- masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike. ``` ``` §253. Adjectives of the third declension in -er have three endings; those in -is have two endings; the others have one ending. CLASS I ``` ``` §254. Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows: ācer, ācris, ācre, keen, eager STEM ācri- BASE ācr- SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. ācer ācris ācre ācrēs ācrēs ācria Gen. ācris ācris ācris ācrium ācrium ācrium Dat. ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus Acc. ācrem ācrem ācre ācrīs, -ēs ācrīs, -ēs ācria Abl. ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus CLASS II ``` ``` §255. Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows: omnis, omne, every, all[1] STEM omni- BASE omn- [1] omnis is usually translated every in the singular and all in the plural. SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. omnis omne omnēs omnia Gen. omnis omnis omnium omnium Dat. omnī omnī omnibus omnibus Acc. omnem omne omnīs, -ēs omnia Abl. omnī omnī omnibus omnibus CLASS III ``` ``` §256. Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows: pār, equal STEM pari- BASE par- SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. pār pār parēs paria Gen. paris paris parium parium Dat. parī parī paribus paribus Acc. parem pār parīs, -ēs paria Abl. parī parī paribus paribus 1. All i-stem adjectives have -ī in the ablative singular. 2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural. 3. Decline vir ācer, legiō ācris, animal ācre, ager omnis, scūtum omne, proelium pār. ``` ``` §257. There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | dīves | rich man | | fertilēs | fertile, fruitful, from fertilis | | pecudēs | cattle, herd, from pecus | | rūra | country, farm, from rus | | columbae | pigeon, from columba | | umerīs | shoulder, from umerus | | gallīnae | hen, chicken, from gallina | | Rapācēs | grasping, rapacious, from rapax | | avēs | bird, from avis | | occurrunt | hurt, from obcurro | | Ūtilēs | useful, profitable, from utilis | | ōva | egg, from ovum | | dulcem | pleasant, charming, from dulcis | | carnem | meat, flesh, from caro | | fidēlia | earthen pot | | frūmentum | grain | | Canem | dog, from canis | | fidēlis | faithful | | docile | easily taught, teachable, from docilis | | Nōvistīne | get to know, from nosco | | pellem | skin, hide, from pellis | | Explicā | unfold, extend, from explico | | vocābula | noun, common, from vocabulum | | Arātor | plowman | | arābat | plow, till, from aro | | arātrum | plow, from arater | | bovēs | ox, cow, from bos | | iugō | yoke, from jugum | | proximō | nearest, next, from proximus | | pāstōrem | shepherd, herdsman, from pastor | | Senex | old man | | pauper | poor | | plērumque | generally, commonly | | carmina | card for wool, from carmen | | trīstia | sad, sorrowful, from tristis | | grēx | flock, herd | | ovium | sheep, from ovis | | vōce | voice, from vox | | sagāx | keen-scented | | redēgit | drive back, from redigo | | ingēns | huge, vast | | incurrere | run into or towards, attack, from incurro | | audāx | bold, audacious | | suēs | swine, from sus | | hortum | garden, fruit, from hortus | | expellere | drive out, from expello | | difficile | difficult, from difficilis | | saltem | at least, anyhow | | Baculum | small berry | | stulta | foolish, stupid, from stultus | | hominēs | man, human being, from homo | | facile | facile, easy, from facilis | ## Give the forms: senex **147** senex old man ## IV Dēclīnātiō, the fourth declension ### Two endings in one line Ex portū Carthāginis ad Ītaliam tantum exercitum vehere nāvēs nōn poterant. "Ships could not carry so great an army from the harbour of Carthage to Italy." Exercitum is the accusative object of vehere and ends in -um. Ex takes the ablative, so portū ends in -ū. ### The subject has a third ending Nunquam anteā tantus exercitus tam longum iter fēcit! "Never before had so great an army made so long a march!" Exercitus is the nominative subject of fēcit. Its -us ending contrasts with accusative exercitum. Masculine nouns of the fourth declension use nominative -us, accusative -um, and ablative -ū. The forms of adventus show all three endings. ### **148** Gāius Cornēlius Scīpiō duōbus cum fīliīs sub porticū umbrōsā sedēbat. Gaius Cornelius Scipio was sitting with his two sons under a shady portico. **149** Mārcus eī dixit: 'Nārrā nōbīs, pater, fābulam dē Hannibale illō quem avus noster vīcit.' 'Sānē! nōn tamen dē victōriā Scīpiōnis, sed dē māgnō itinere quod Hannibal trāns Alpēs fēcit, hodiē vōbīs nārrābō. Marcus said to him: 'Tell us, father, the story about that Hannibal whom our grandfather defeated.' 'Certainly! but today I shall tell you not about Scipio's victory but about the great march Hannibal made across the Alps. **150** 'Poenī māgnam et pulchram urbem in Āfricā incolēbant, quae Carthāgō vocābātur. 'The Carthaginians lived in a great and beautiful city in Africa, which was called Carthage. **151** Dux Poenōrum, Hannibal, vir fortis et prūdēns, Rōmam capere volēbat. The leader of the Carthaginians, Hannibal, a brave and prudent man, wanted to take Rome. **152** Ingentī igitur cum exercitū in Ītaliam invādere cōnstituit. So he decided to invade Italy with a huge army. **153** In hōc exercitū erant peditēs et equitēs et iaculātōrēs et elephantī. In this army there were foot-soldiers and cavalry and javelin-throwers and elephants. **154** Ex portū Carthāginis ad Ītaliam tantum exercitum vehere nāvēs nōn poterant; parvae enim tum erant. Ships could not carry so great an army from the harbour of Carthage to Italy; for they were small in those days. **155** Hannibal igitur exercitum per Hispāniam et Galliam dūcere cōnstituit. So Hannibal decided to lead the army through Spain and Gaul. **156** Nunquam anteā tantus exercitus tam longum iter fēcit! Never before had so great an army made so long a march! **157** Hibērum flūmen montēsque Pȳrēnaeōs trānsiit. He crossed the river Ebro and the Pyrenees. **158** Per Galliam longum iter fēcit. Through Gaul he made a long march. **159** Difficile erat Rhodanum trānsīre, quia gentēs Gallōrum īnfestae erant.' It was difficult to cross the Rhone, because the Gallic tribes were hostile.' **160** Ubi Poenī habitābant? Where did the Carthaginians live? **161** Quālis urbs erat Carthāgō? What sort of city was Carthage? **162** Quālī in urbe habitās? What sort of city do you live in? **163** Quā in parte urbis nāvēs manent? In which part of a city do ships stay? **164** Unde nāvēs in mare exeunt? From where do ships go out to sea? **165** Cūr Hannibal mare trānsīre cōnstituit? Why did Hannibal decide to cross the sea? **166** Quid Hannibal facere cōnstituit? What did Hannibal decide to do? **167** Ubi Cornēlius hanc fābulam nārrābat? Where was Cornelius telling this story? **168** Cūr ibi sedēbat? Why was he sitting there? **169** Quōmodo vocātur pater patris? What is one's father's father called? **170** Quōmodo vocātur is quī iacula cōnicit? What is he called who throws javelins? **171** Quōmodo vocantur eī quī pedibus eunt? What are they called who go on foot? **172** Quōmodo vocātur mīles quem equus vehit? What is a soldier called whom a horse carries? **173** Quāle animal est elephās? equus? asinus? What sort of animal is an elephant? a horse? a donkey? **174** Hannibalem. Hannibal (accusative). ``` D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XLVI, §§259-260 §259. Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter. ``` ``` §260. Masculine nouns end in -us, neuters in -ū. The genitive ends in -ūs. a. Feminine by exception are domus, house; manus, hand; and a few others. PARADIGMS adventus, cornū, m., arrival n., horn STEMS adventu- cornu- BASES advent- corn- SINGULAR TERMINATIONS MASC. NEUT. Nom. adventus cornū -us -ū Gen. adventūs cornūs -ūs -ūs Dat. adventuī (ū) cornū -uī (ū) -ū Acc. adventum cornū -um -ū Abl. adventū cornū -ū -ū PLURAL Nom. adventūs cornua -ūs -ua Gen. adventuum cornuum -uum -uum Dat. adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus Acc. adventūs cornua -ūs -ua Abl. adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus 1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular. 2. lacus, lake, has the ending -ubus in the dative and ablative plural; portus, harbor, has either -ubus or -ibus. 3. cornū is the only neuter that is in common use. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | sub | under, below | | porticū | colonnade, covered walk, from porticus | | umbrōsā | shady, shadowy, from umbrosus | | avus | grandfather | | itinere | march, journey, from iter | | Alpēs | Alps, mountains to the north, from Alpis | | Poenī | penalty, punishment | | incolēbant | inhabit, from incolo | | Carthāgō | Carthage | | fortis | brave | | prūdēns | aware, skilled | | exercitū | army, from exercitus | | invādere | enter, attempt, from invado | | cōnstituit | establish, determine, from constituo | | peditēs | foot soldier, from pedes | | equitēs | horseman, cavalryman, from eques | | iaculātōrēs | javelin thrower, from jaculator | | elephantī | elephant, from elephantus | | portū | harbor, from portus | | Pȳrēnaeōs | Pyrenees, from Pyrenaeus | | Rhodanum | Rhone, from Rhodanus | | īnfestae | unsafe, dangerous, from infestus | | cōnicit | throw, from conicio | | elephās | elephant | ## Adverbia, adverbs ### Adverbs keep one form Hannibal etiam in Alpibus prūdenter ībat means Hannibal too went carefully in the Alps. In vir fortis et prūdēns, fortis and prūdēns describe vir. In prūdenter vītābat and fortiter ībat, the adverbs tell how Hannibal acted. Adverbs have no declension, so prūdenter and fortiter do not take forms that agree with nouns. ### Form the adverb A third-declension adjective with two or three endings usually adds -iter to its base. Fortis has two endings, and fortiter means bravely. A third-declension adjective with one ending usually adds -ter to its base. Audāx has one ending, and audācter means boldly. The forms of fortis and audāx show the two positive adverb endings beside their comparative and superlative forms. ### From the book **175** 'Hannibal autem vir fortis et prūdēns erat; nam omnia perīcula, quae vītāre poterat, prūdenter vītābat; sī tamen vītāre nōn poterat, ipse prīmus in perīculum fortiter ībat. 'Hannibal, however, was a brave and prudent man; for he prudently avoided all the dangers he could avoid; but if he could not avoid them, he himself went bravely first into the danger. **176** Tandem ad īmās Alpēs pervēnit; ibi Gallus quīdam eī saltum mōnstravit. At last he reached the foot of the Alps; there a certain Gaul showed him a pass. **177** Via per montēs inīqua erat et angusta; ascēnsus igitur erat difficilis.' The way through the mountains was rough and narrow; so the ascent was difficult.' **178** Mārcus patrem rogāvit: 'Potestne elephās, tam grave animal, montem ascendere?' Marcus asked his father: 'Can an elephant, so heavy an animal, climb a mountain?' **179** 'Ita, mī fīlī; elephās docilis est et sagāciter facit id quod magister imperat; hī saltem elephantī cum cēterō exercitū nōn sine māgnō labōre ascendērunt.' 'Yes, my son; an elephant is teachable and cleverly does what its master orders; these elephants at least climbed up with the rest of the army, not without great labour.' **180** Tum Mārcus 'Nōn celeriter,' inquit, 'mī pater, elephantī currere possunt.' Cornēlius autem 'Immō vērō celeriter,' inquit, 'in campō et per silvās elephantī currunt; sed in montibus lentē et prūdenter eunt. Then Marcus said, 'Elephants cannot run fast, father.' But Cornelius said, 'On the contrary, elephants run fast on the plain and through the woods; but in the mountains they go slowly and carefully. **181** Hannibal etiam in Alpibus prūdenter ībat, quia gentēs barbarōrum quae ibi habitābant saepe eum audācter oppūgnābant. Hannibal too went carefully in the Alps, because the barbarian tribes that lived there often attacked him boldly. **182** Aliquando ingentia saxa dē summīs montibus in exercitum dēvolvere incēpērunt; sagittāriī statim arcūs sūmpsērunt et sagittās in hostēs mīsērunt; sed hī post māgna saxa latēbant neque iterum sē audācter ostendēbant.' Once they began to roll huge rocks down from the mountaintops onto the army; the archers at once took up their bows and shot arrows at the enemy; but these hid behind great rocks and did not boldly show themselves again.' ``` D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LVII, §§319-325 §319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension. ``` ``` §320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE Adj. cārus, dear cārior cārissimus Adv. cārē, dearly cārius cārissimē Adj. pulcher, beautiful pulchrior pulcherrimus Adv. pulchrē, beautifully pulchrius pulcherrimē Adj. līber, free līberior līberrimus Adv. līberē, freely līberius līberrimē a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -ē to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way. b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective. ``` ``` §321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;[1] as, [1] This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it. POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE Adj. fortis, brave fortior fortissimus Adv. fortiter, bravely fortius fortissimē Adj. audāx, bold audācior audācissimus Adv. audācter, boldly audācius audācissimē ``` ``` §322. Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as, Adj. facilis, easy prīmus, first Adv. facile (acc.), easily prīmum (acc.), first prīmō (abl.), at first Adj. multus, many plūrimus, most Adv. multum (acc.), much plūrimum (acc.), most multō (abl.), by much ``` ``` §323. Learn the following irregular comparisons: bene, well melius, better optimē, best diū, long (time) diūtius, longer diūtissimē, longest magnopere, greatly magis, more maximē, most parum, little minus, less minimē, least prope, nearly, near propius, nearer proximē, nearest saepe, often saepius, oftener saepissimē, oftenest ``` ``` §324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: laetus, superbus, molestus, amīcus, ācer, brevis, gravis, recēns. ``` ``` §325. RULE. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. ``` | word | gloss | |---|---| | perīcula | danger, peril, from periculum | | prūdenter | wisely, discreetly | | ipse | self | | fortiter | strongly | | pervēnit | come through, arrive, from pervenio | | quīdam | a certain one, a certain | | saltum | leap, spring, from saltus | | ascēnsus | ascent | | grave | heavy, severe, from gravis | | ascendere | climb, from ascendo | | imperat | order, command, from impero | | labōre | labor, toil, from labor | | celeriter | quickly | | Immō | no indeed | | vērō | truly, indeed | | audācter | boldly | | saxa | rock, stone, from saxum | | dēvolvere | roll, from devolvo | | sagittāriī | archer, bowman | | arcūs | box, chest | | sagittās | arrow, from sagitta | | mīsērunt | send, from mitto | | latēbant | lie hidden, lurk, from lateo | | ostendēbant | show, from ostendo |