# Prīmus et Secundus Annus, Lēctiōnēs 37–43

Prīmus Annus II

Iter Hannibalis; Villa Cornēliāna; Servī; Vīlla Cornēliāna

Source: https://1732studios.com/courses/la/6. Data: https://1732studios.com/courses/la/6.json.

## V Dēclīnātiō, the fifth declension

### Duration and time when

Novem diēs Poenī Alpēs ascendēbant means "For nine days the Carthaginians were climbing the Alps."

Decimō diē ad summum saltum pervēnērunt means "On the tenth day they reached the top of the pass."

Novem diēs is accusative plural for duration. Decimō diē is ablative singular for the time when.

### The fifth-declension forms

Diēs belongs to the fifth declension. The line uses its accusative plural diēs and its ablative singular diē.

The table shows both forms among the complete forms of diēs.

### Paradigms

**1** 'Rem difficilem Poenī faciēbant.  
'The Carthaginians were doing a difficult thing.

**2** Via enim nōn inīqua modo, sed rupta etiam in multīs locīs erat.  
For the road was not only rough but also broken in many places.

**3** Ibi neque elephantī neque equī neque asinī, nē hominēs quidem gradum facere poterant.'  
There neither elephants nor horses nor donkeys, not even men, could take a step.'

**4** Mārcus 'Dē asinīs,' inquit, 'nihil, Ō mī pater, dīxistī.  
Marcus said, 'About the donkeys, father, you have said nothing.

**5** Erantne asinī etiam in exercitū Hannibalis?' 'Erant in exercitū asinī, quī onera vehēbant.  
Were there donkeys too in Hannibal's army?' 'There were donkeys in the army, which carried the baggage.

**6** Nēmō, ut dīxī, gradum facere poterat, ubi via rupta erat.  
No one, as I said, could take a step where the road was broken.

**7** Tum peditēs et iaculātōrēs genibus manibusque saxa ascendērunt, deinde animālia trāns locum difficilem fūnibus trāxērunt.  
Then the foot-soldiers and javelin-throwers climbed the rocks on knees and hands, and then dragged the animals across the difficult place with ropes.

**8** Itaque tōtum āgmen iterum in tūtam viam pervēnit.  
And so the whole column came again onto a safe road.

**9** Hic nivēs altae in monte iacēbant, illīc glaciēs; neque exercitus prōcēdere poterat, antequam peditēs viam per nivēs glaciemque fēcērunt.  
Here deep snow lay on the mountain, there ice; and the army could not advance until the foot-soldiers had made a way through the snow and ice.

**10** 'Novem diēs Poenī Alpēs ascendēbant; decimō diē ad summum saltum pervēnērunt.  
'For nine days the Carthaginians were climbing the Alps; on the tenth day they reached the top of the pass.

**11** Tum Hannibal omnēs mīlitēs convocāvit et tālia eīs dīxit: "Prīmus nōs exercitus Alpēs trānsiimus; dēscēnsus adhūc nōs manet; haec rēs certē facilis erit nōbīs quī tam novam et difficilem rem fēcimus; quīnque diēbus in campīs Ītaliae stābimus; fortēs este! dēscendite!"'  
Then Hannibal called all the soldiers together and said to them something like this: "We are the first army to have crossed the Alps; the descent still awaits us; this will surely be easy for us who have done so new and difficult a thing; in five days we shall stand in the plains of Italy; be brave! go down!"'

**12** Quot diēs Hannibal ascendēbat? Quot diēbus ad summās Alpēs pervēnit? Quotō diē illūc pervēnit?  
How many days was Hannibal climbing? In how many days did he reach the top of the Alps? On which day did he arrive there?

**13** Quibus membrīs Poenī saxa ascendēbant?  
With which limbs did the Carthaginians climb the rocks?

**14** Ubi nē hominēs quidem gradum faciēbant?  
Where could not even men take a step?

**15** Cūr sagittāriī nōn multōs hostēs occīdere potuērunt?  
Why could the archers not kill many of the enemy?

**16** Unde barbarī saxa dēvolvēbant? Quālia saxa?  
From where did the barbarians roll down rocks? What sort of rocks?

**17** Quālēs erant barbarī?  
What were the barbarians like?

**18** Postquam dux mīlitēs convocāvit, quālēs sunt mīlitēs?  
After the leader called the soldiers together, what are the soldiers like?

**19** Quid dux mīlitibus imperāvit?  
What did the leader order the soldiers?

**20** Quae tēla sagittāriī mittunt?  
What missiles do archers shoot?

**21** Quō īnstrūmentō mīlitēs animālia trāxērunt? Trāns quālem locum?  
With what instrument did the soldiers drag the animals? Across what sort of place?

**22** Quid in monte iacēbat? Quāle erat?  
What lay on the mountain? What was it like?

**23** Quot pedēs alta nix aliquandō in Britanniā iacet?  
How many feet deep does snow sometimes lie in Britain?

**24** Vīdistīne unquam in flūmine glaciem?  
Have you ever seen ice on a river?

**25** Quālia onera asinī vehēbant?  
What sort of loads did the donkeys carry?

**26** Quae erant haec onera?  
What were these loads?

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D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XLVIII, §§272-275

§272. Gender. Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except diēs, day, and merīdiēs, midday, which are usually masculine.
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§273. PARADIGMS

        diēs,     rēs, f.,
        m., day     thing
STEMS   diē-        rē-
BASES   di-         r-

        SINGULAR          TERMINATIONS
Nom.    diēs        rēs      -ēs
Gen.    diēī        reī      -ē̆ī
Dat.    diēī        reī      -ē̆ī
Acc.    diem        rem      -em
Abl.    diē         rē       -ē

        PLURAL
Nom.    diēs        rēs      -ēs
Gen.    diērum      rērum    -ērum
Dat.    diēbus      rēbus    -ēbus
Acc.    diēs        rēs      -ēs
Abl.    diēbus      rēbus    -ēbus

1. The vowel e which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending -eī after a consonant, as in r-ĕī; and before -m in the accusative singular, as in di-em. (Cf. §12.2.)

2. Only diēs and rēs are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. Aciēs, line of battle, and spēs, hope, have the nominative and accusative plural.
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§274. The ablative relation (§50) which is expressed by the prepositions at, in, or on may refer not only to place, but also to time, as at noon, in summer, on the first day. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the ablative of time.
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§275. RULE. The Ablative of Time. The time when or within which anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition.

a. Occasionally the preposition in is found. Compare the English Next day we started and On the next day we started.
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| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| Rem | thing, matter, from res |
| modo | only, merely |
| rupta | break, from rumpo |
| nē | in order that not, that |
| quidem | to be sure, certainly |
| gradum | step, from gradus |
| asinīs | she-ass, from asina |
| onera | load, burden, from onus |
| genibus | cheeks, from genu |
| manibusque | hand, from manus |
| tūtam | see, look at, from tueor |
| nivēs | snow, from nix |
| glaciēs | ice |
| prōcēdere | proceed, from procedo |
| antequam | before, sooner than |
| decimō | December, from decimus |
| convocāvit | call together, summon, from convoco |
| tālia | such, from talis |
| dēscēnsus | decent, climbing |
| certē | fixed, certain, from certus |
| summās | above, high, from superus |
| Postquam | after, as soon as |

## Give the forms: genū

**27** genū  
knee

## Comparātiō, comparison

### Higher and highest forms

Peditēs celeriōrēs fuērunt quam equitēs means the foot-soldiers were faster than the cavalry.

The comparative adds -ior for masculine and feminine forms, or -ius for neuter forms, to the adjective base.

The superlative adds -issimus, -issima, or -issimum. The comparison table shows both sets of suffixes on adjectives with their meanings.

### From the book

### Comparison still agrees

In campō peditēs lentiōrēs sunt quam equitēs uses masculine plural peditēs with lentiōrēs.

Lentiōrēs is masculine, plural, and nominative because it agrees with peditēs.

Comparative adjectives take the endings of consonant stems in the third declension. The forms of clāriōrēs show the masculine and feminine plural endings.

### Masc. and fem

### A special superlative

Difficillimam hanc rem fēcit means he has done this very difficult thing.

Difficillimam is the superlative of difficilis. Six adjectives in -lis add -limus to the base instead of -issimus.

Difficillimam is feminine, singular, and accusative because it agrees with rem.

**28** Longa erat fābula, et proximō diē Cornelius dē itinere Hannibalis nārrāre perrēxit:  
The story was long, and the next day Cornelius went on telling of Hannibal's march:

**29** 'Dēscēnsus Alpium difficilior erat quam ascēnsus.  
'The descent of the Alps was more difficult than the ascent.

**30** In campō peditēs lentiōrēs sunt quam equitēs; sed dum dē summīs montibus exercitus Hannibalis dēscendit, peditēs celeriōrēs fuērunt quam equitēs; elephantī ex omnibus lentissimī erant.  
On the plain foot-soldiers are slower than cavalry; but while Hannibal's army was coming down from the mountaintops, the foot-soldiers were faster than the cavalry; the elephants were the slowest of all.

**31** Interdum elephantī in locīs superiōribus diū manēbant neque in loca īnferiōra dēscendere volēbant; via enim quae ūltrā Alpēs inīqua et perīculōsa erat, citrā inīquior erat et perīculōsior; neque elephantī, animālia ex omnibus gravissima, facile ascendere aut dēscendere poterant.  
Sometimes the elephants stayed a long time in the higher places and would not come down to the lower ones; for the road, which beyond the Alps was rough and dangerous, was on this side rougher and more dangerous; and elephants, the heaviest animals of all, could not easily climb up or down.

**32** Tandem mīlitēs campōs fertilēs Ītaliae īnfrā vīdērunt; statim fortiōrēs illīs fuērunt animī; longissimī enim itineris aderat fīnis.  
At last the soldiers saw the fertile plains of Italy below; at once their spirits were braver; for the end of the very long march was at hand.

**33** 'Decem diēbus ad summās Alpēs pervēnērunt; pauciōribus diēbus ad campum dēscendērunt.  
'In ten days they reached the top of the Alps; in fewer days they came down to the plain.

**34** Postquam autem Rōmānī dē hāc tam difficilī rē audīvērunt, clāmāre incēpērunt: "Quis nunc nōs servāre potest?  
But after the Romans heard of this so difficult feat, they began to cry out: "Who can save us now?

**35** Nōnne Hannibal fortior et prūdentior est quam omnēs nostrī imperātōrēs?  
Isn't Hannibal braver and more prudent than all our generals?

**36** Difficillimam hanc rem fēcit; multō facilius erit nostram urbem capere." At post iter multō minor erat exercitus Poenōrum, quī antea māior erat quam Rōmānus.'  
He has done this very difficult thing; it will be much easier to take our city." But after the march the army of the Carthaginians, which before was larger than the Roman, was much smaller.'

**37** Tum Mārcus 'Cēpitne,' inquit, 'Hannibal Rōmam?' Cuī pater respondit: 'Num hoc rogās, mī fīlī, tū quī Rōmānus puer es?'  
Then Marcus said, 'Did Hannibal take Rome?' His father answered him: 'Do you really ask this, my son, you who are a Roman boy?'

**38** Hannibalem cum aliīs imperātōribus. (prūdēns.)  
Hannibal with other generals. (prudent.)

**39** ascēnsum Alpium cum dēscēnsu. (difficilis.)  
the ascent of the Alps with the descent. (difficult.)

**40** elephantum cum equō. (docilis.)  
an elephant with a horse. (teachable.)

**41** canem cum asinō. (sagāx.)  
a dog with a donkey. (clever.)

**42** montēs cum campīs. (altus.)  
mountains with plains. (high.)

**43** hoc pēnsum cum trīgēnsimō. (facilis.)  
this exercise with the thirtieth. (easy.)

**44** iter Hannibalis cum itinere quod tū cottīdiē facis. (longus.)  
Hannibal's march with the journey you make every day. (long.)

**45** peditēs cum equitibus. (lentus.)  
foot-soldiers with cavalry. (slow.)

**46** equitēs cum peditibus. (celer.)  
cavalry with foot-soldiers. (swift.)

**47** canēs cum bōbus. (fidēlis.)  
dogs with oxen. (faithful.)

**48** mīlitem cum cīve. (fortis.)  
a soldier with a citizen. (brave.)

**49** Brūtum cum Orbiliō. (stultus.)  
Brutus with Orbilius. (stupid.)

**50** discipulum qui nunquam labōrat cum eō quī nōnnunquam labōrat. (īgnāvus.)  
a pupil who never works with one who sometimes works. (idle.)

**51** puerum quī corpus exercuit cum eō quī hoc nōn fēcit. (validus.)  
a boy who has trained his body with one who has not. (strong.)

**52** quārtam decimam sententiam cum quārtā. (longus.)  
the fourteenth sentence with the fourth. (long.)

**53** gallīnās cum columbīs. (rapāx.)  
hens with doves. (greedy.)

**54** Cornēlium cum pāstōre. (dīves.)  
Cornelius with the shepherd. (rich.)

**55** carmen pāstōris cum carmine gallī. (dulcis.)  
the shepherd's song with the cock's song. (sweet.)

**56** Padum cum Istrō. (rapidus)  
the Po with the Danube. (swift.)

**57** Ītaliam cum Siciliā. (māgnus.)  
Italy with Sicily. (big.)

**58** taurum et ovem et canem. (saevus.)  
a bull and a sheep and a dog. (fierce.)

**59** Alpēs et Pȳrēnaeōs et Āppennīnōs. (altus.)  
the Alps and the Pyrenees and the Apennines. (high.)

**60** Istrum et Tiberim et Padum. (longus.)  
the Danube and the Tiber and the Po. (long.)

**61** Britanniam et Corsicam et Siciliam. (māgnus.)  
Britain and Corsica and Sicily. (big.)

**62** ducem et pāstōrem et arātōrem. (fortis.)  
a leader and a shepherd and a ploughman. (brave.)

**63** equum et vaccam et suem. (fidēlis.)  
a horse and a cow and a pig. (faithful.)

**64** canem et asinum et taurum. (sagāx.)  
a dog and a donkey and a bull. (clever.)

**65** stilum et sellam et iānuam. (parvus)  
a pen and a chair and a door. (small.)

**66** Brūtum et Marcum et Tertium. (stultus.)  
Brutus and Marcus and Tertius. (stupid.)

**67** hanc partem pēnsī et prīmam et alteram. (facilis.)  
this part of the exercise and the first and the second. (easy.)

**68** hanc sententiam et prīmam et tertiam. (brevis.)  
this sentence and the first and the third. (short.)

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D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LIII, §§300-305

§300. The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative; as, positive high, comparative higher, superlative highest. Less frequently we use the adverbs more and most; as, positive beautiful, comparative more beautiful, superlative most beautiful.

In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs.
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§301. Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows:

POSITIVE          COMPARATIVE          SUPERLATIVE
clārus, -a, -um   clārior, clārius     clārissimus, -a, -um
  (bright)        (brighter)         (brightest)
  (BASE clār-)
brevis, breve     brevior, brevius     brevissimus, -a, -um
  (short)         (shorter)          (shortest)
  (BASE brev-)
vēlōx             vēlōcior, vēlōcius   vēlōcissimus, -a, -um
  (swift)         (swifter)          (swiftest)
  (BASE veloc-)

a. The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding -ior masc. and fem., and -ius neut.; the superlative by adding -issimus, -issima, -issimum.
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§302. Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs magis, more; maximē, most; as, idōneus, suitable; magis idōneus, more suitable; maximē idōneus, most suitable.
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§303. Declension of the Comparative. Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows:

        SINGULAR                     PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
Nom.    clārior         clārius      clāriōrēs       clāriōra
Gen.    clāriōris       clāriōris    clāriōrum       clāriōrum
Dat.    clāriōrī        clāriōrī     clāriōribus     clāriōribus
Acc.    clāriōrem       clārius      clāriōrēs       clāriōra
Abl.    clāriōre        clāriōre     clāriōribus     clāriōribus

a. Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension.

b. Compare longus, long; fortis, brave; recēns (base, recent-), recent; and decline the comparative of each.
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§304. Adjectives in -er form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding -rimus, -a, -um to the nominative masculine of the positive; as,

POSITIVE                    COMPARATIVE           SUPERLATIVE
ācer, ācris, ācre           ācrior, ācrius        ācerrimus, -a, -um
  (BASE acr-)
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum  pulchrior, pulchrius  pulcherrimus,
  (BASE pulchr-)                                    -a, -um
līber, lībera, līberum      līberior, līberius    līberrimus, -a, -um
  (BASE līber-)

a. In a similar manner compare miser, aeger, crēber.
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§305. The comparative is often translated by quite, too, or somewhat, and the superlative by very; as, altior, quite (too, somewhat) high; altissimus, very high.
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§307. The following six adjectives in -lis form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding -limus to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison.

POSITIVE                   COMPARATIVE         SUPERLATIVE
facilis, -e, easy          facilior, -ius      facillimus, -a, -um
difficilis, -e, hard       difficilior, -ius   difficillimus, -a, -um
similis, -e, like          similior, -ius      simillimus, -a, -um
dissimilis, -e, unlike     dissimilior, -ius   dissimillimus, -a, -um
gracilis, -e, slender      gracilior, -ius     gracillimus, -a, -um
humilis, -e, low           humilior, -ius      humillimus, -a, -um
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§308. From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence Nothing is brighter than the sun

Nihil est clārius quam sōl

But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way,

Nihil est clārius sōle

which, literally translated, is Nothing is brighter away from the sun; that is, starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative sōle. Hence the rule
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§309. RULE. Ablative with Comparatives. The comparative degree, if quam is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative.
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| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| perrēxit | go on, proceed, from pergo |
| celeriōrēs | swift, quick, from celer |
| Interdum | sometimes, now and then |
| loca | seat, rank, from locum |
| īnferiōra | below, beneath, from inferus |
| ūltrā | beyond, further |
| perīculōsa | dangerous, hazardous, from periculosus |
| citrā | near, from citer |
| animī | mind, heart, from animus |
| fīnis | end, limit |
| imperātōrēs | commander in chief, general, from imperator |
| At | but |
| Num | whether |

## Comparātiō Adverbiōrum, comparison of adverbs

### Celerius and celerrimē

Cervī enim celerius quam canēs currunt, et celerrimē omnium animālium means "deer run faster than dogs, and fastest of all animals."

A comparative adverb uses the neuter comparative adjective form. A regular superlative adverb ends in -ē.

Celerius is comparative. Celerrimē is superlative.

### Māximē is irregular

Sed ego canem māximē āmō means "But I love the dog most of all."

Magnopere, magis, and maximē form the irregular comparison greatly, more, most.

The table groups six adverbs with their irregular comparative and superlative forms.

**69** Mārcus vīlicum multa cottīdiē dē animālibus rogābat.  
Marcus used to ask the bailiff many things every day about animals.

**70** Aliquandō, dum per agrōs ambulant, 'Dīc mihi, Dāve,' inquit, 'nōnne canis omnium animālium celerrimum est?'  
Once, while they were walking through the fields, he said, 'Tell me, Davus, isn't the dog the fastest of all animals?'

**71** Respondit Dāvus, 'Minimē, cervī enim celerius quam canēs currunt, et celerrimē omnium animālium.'  
Davus answered, 'No, for deer run faster than dogs, and fastest of all animals.'

**72** Tum Mārcus 'Nōnne vēnātōribus,' inquit, 'canēs sunt quī cervōs in silvīs agunt?  
Then Marcus said, 'Don't hunters have dogs that drive deer in the woods?

**73** Cūr igitur hōs canēs adhibent, sī lentius quam cervī currunt?'  
Why then do they use these dogs, if they run more slowly than deer?'

**74** 'Sunt ista, ut dīcis, respondit vīlicus; 'sunt canēs vēnāticī quī vel cervōs celeritāte superant.'  
'That is so, as you say,' answered the bailiff; 'there are hunting dogs that surpass even deer in speed.'

**75** Deinde Mārcus 'Sed certē', inquit, 'si nōn celerrimum, at ūtilissimum omnium animālium canis est.'  
Then Marcus said, 'But surely, if not the fastest, the dog is at least the most useful of all animals.'

**76** Tum vīlicus: 'Quid dīcis, Mārce?  
Then the bailiff: 'What are you saying, Marcus?

**77** Mihi fortasse aliīsque pāstōribus canis est ūtilissimus; sed mīlitī equus, agricolae bōs, viātōrī mūlus, aliīs alia animālia ūtiliōra sunt quam canis.'  
To me perhaps and to other shepherds the dog is most useful; but to a soldier the horse, to a farmer the ox, to a traveller the mule: to different people different animals are more useful than the dog.'

**78** Mārcus, quī dē hōc respōnsō diū cōgitābat, tandem 'Sed ego,' inquit, 'canem māximē āmō, et libentius cum cane meō lūdō quam cum omnibus aliīs animālibus.'  
Marcus, who thought about this answer for a long time, at last said, 'But I love the dog most of all, and I play more gladly with my dog than with all other animals.'

**79** In campō eques celerior est quam pedes. (īre.)  
On the plain a horseman is faster than a foot-soldier. (to go.)

**80** In montibus pedite lentior est eques.  
In the mountains a horseman is slower than a foot-soldier.

**81** Canis sagācior est sue. (āgnōs redigere.)  
A dog is cleverer than a pig. (to drive lambs back.)

**82** Equus fidēlior est asinō. (magistrum amāre.)  
A horse is more faithful than a donkey. (to love its master.)

**83** Caesar prūdentior erat Hannibale. (exercitum dūcere.)  
Caesar was more prudent than Hannibal. (to lead an army.)

**84** Hannibal Caesare audācior erat. (bellum gerere.)  
Hannibal was bolder than Caesar. (to wage war.)

**85** Mīles fortior est quam pāstor. (pūgnāre.)  
A soldier is braver than a shepherd. (to fight.)

**86** Padus flūmen celerius est quam Rhodanus. (fluere.)  
The river Po is faster than the Rhone. (to flow.)

**87** Quīntus melior scrīptor est quam Titus. (scrībere.)  
Quintus is a better writer than Titus. (to write.)

**88** Hic servus illō pēior arātor est. (arāre.)  
This slave is a worse ploughman than that one. (to plough.)

**89** Uter celerius currit, tū an amīcus tuus?  
Which runs faster, you or your friend?

**90** Ex nostrīs discipulīs, quis celerrimē currit? quis optimē cantat? quis facillimē pēnsum Latīnum facit? quis saepissimē abest?  
Of our pupils, who runs fastest? who sings best? who does the Latin exercise most easily? who is absent most often?

**91** Quae īnstrūmenta tibi in lūdō ūtilia sunt?  
Which instruments are useful to you in school?

**92** Quod īnstrūmentum magistrō ūtilissimum est?  
Which instrument is most useful to the master?

**93** Utram linguam libentius discis, Gallicam an Latīnam?  
Which language do you learn more gladly, French or Latin?

**94** Quāle animal est cervus?  
What sort of animal is a deer?

**95** Quōs cervus fugit?  
Whom does a deer flee?

**96** Curritne cervus celerius quam canēs vēnāticī?  
Does a deer run faster than hunting dogs?

**97** Quibus hominibus canēs ūtilēs sunt?  
To which people are dogs useful?

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LVII, §§319-325

§319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.
```

```
§320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

        POSITIVE                COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    cārus, dear             cārior       cārissimus
Adv.    cārē, dearly            cārius       cārissimē

Adj.    pulcher, beautiful      pulchrior    pulcherrimus
Adv.    pulchrē, beautifully    pulchrius    pulcherrimē

Adj.    līber, free             līberior     līberrimus
Adv.    līberē, freely          līberius     līberrimē

a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -ē to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.
```

```
§321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;[1] as,
[1] This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.

        POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    fortis, brave         fortior      fortissimus
Adv.    fortiter, bravely     fortius      fortissimē

Adj.    audāx, bold           audācior     audācissimus
Adv.    audācter, boldly      audācius     audācissimē
```

```
§322. Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

Adj.    facilis, easy               prīmus, first
Adv.    facile (acc.), easily       prīmum (acc.), first
                                    prīmō (abl.), at first
Adj.    multus, many                plūrimus, most
Adv.    multum (acc.), much         plūrimum (acc.), most
        multō (abl.), by much
```

```
§323. Learn the following irregular comparisons:

bene, well             melius, better      optimē, best
diū, long (time)     diūtius, longer     diūtissimē, longest
magnopere, greatly     magis, more         maximē, most
parum, little          minus, less         minimē, least
prope, nearly, near    propius, nearer     proximē, nearest
saepe, often           saepius, oftener    saepissimē, oftenest
```

```
§324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: laetus, superbus, molestus, amīcus, ācer, brevis, gravis, recēns.
```

```
§325. RULE. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
```

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| vīlicum | wife of a farm overseer, from vilicus |
| cervī | doe, hind, from cervus |
| vēnātōribus | hunter, from venator |
| adhibent | summon, invite, from adhibeo |
| ista | that, from iste |
| vēnāticī | for hunting, from venaticus |
| celeritāte | speed, from celeritas |
| superant | conquer, overcome, from supero |
| fortasse | perhaps, possibly |
| aliīsque | some ... others |
| viātōrī | traveling, from viatorius |
| mūlus | she-mule |
| libentius | nibble, sip, from libet |
| scrīptor | writer, author |
| optimē | very well, best of all |

## Gerundium, the gerund

### Agreement does not determine case

Hostēs, quōs Rōmānī cēpērunt, servī fīunt means "The enemies whom the Romans captured become slaves."

Hostēs and quōs are masculine plural, but their cases differ. Hostēs is nominative as the subject of fīunt. Quōs is accusative as the direct object of cēpērunt.

A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. Its use in its own clause determines its case.

**98** Hostēs, quōs Rōmānī cēpērunt, servī fīunt.  
The enemies whom the Romans captured become slaves.

**99** Aliī autem barbarī erant et rudēs; agrōs igitur colēbant aut pecudēs pāscēbant.  
Some were barbarians and unskilled; so they tilled the fields or pastured the cattle.

**100** Aliī servī erant Graecī, quī Rōmānīs saepe doctiōrōs semperque callidiōrēs erant.  
Other slaves were Greeks, who were often more learned and always cleverer than the Romans.

**101** Hī librōs dominī cūrābant, lītterās scrībēbant, pecūniam numerābant.  
These looked after the master's books, wrote letters, counted money.

**102** Domina etiam habēbat servās multās, quae vestēs faciēbant aut īnfantem cūrābant.  
The mistress too had many slave-women, who made clothes or looked after the baby.

**103** Stolam enim tunicamque, quas Semprōnia gerit, et togam, quam Cornēlius gerit, domī fēcērunt servae.  
For the stola and tunic which Sempronia wears, and the toga which Cornelius wears, the slave-women made at home.

**104** Prope Cornēlium stat nūntius; mox Rōmam ībit lītterāsque amīco dominī reddet.  
Near Cornelius stands a messenger; soon he will go to Rome and deliver a letter to the master's friend.

**105** Servī, quī in villā nātī sunt ibique semper vīxērunt, vernae vocantur.  
Slaves who were born in the villa and have always lived there are called vernae.

**106** Mārcus parvum vernam habet, qui cum eō ad lūdum it et librōs portat.  
Marcus has a little verna, who goes with him to school and carries his books.

**107** Quō cōnsiliō Mārcus ipse ad lūdum it?  
With what purpose does Marcus himself go to school?

**108** Discendī causā ad lūdum it.  
He goes to school for the sake of learning.

**109** Servī, quī validiōrēs erant quam cēterī, saepe in Circō Māximō pūgnābant.  
Slaves who were stronger than the rest often fought in the Circus Maximus.

**110** Hi gladiātōrēs vocābantur, quia saepius gladiō pūgnābant.  
These were called gladiators, because they generally fought with the sword.

**111** Plērīque gladiātōrum capillōs flāvōs oculōsque caeruleōs habebant; Germānī enim erant aut Britannī.  
Most of the gladiators had fair hair and blue eyes; for they were Germans or Britons.

**112** Nunquam patriam suam iterum vidēbunt; nam servus effugere nōn potest.  
They will never see their native land again; for a slave cannot escape.

**113** Multī ex eīs in Circō Māximō pūgnāre mālunt quam in vīllā Rōmānā servīre.  
Many of them prefer to fight in the Circus Maximus rather than serve in a Roman villa.

**114** Fortasse eōs aliī gladiātōrēs occīdent!  
Perhaps other gladiators will kill them!

**115** Hic servitūtis erit fīnis.  
This will be the end of slavery.

**116** Hoc spectāculum videndī causā Rōmānī conveniēbant.  
For the sake of seeing this spectacle the Romans used to gather.

**117** Saepe ante decem mīlia spectātōrum gladiātōrēs alius alium occīdēbant.  
Often before ten thousand spectators the gladiators killed one another.

**118** Quō cōnsiliō tū ad mēnsam cōnsīdis?  
With what purpose do you sit down at the table?

**119** Quō cōnsiliō puerī in campum eunt?  
With what purpose do the boys go into the field?

**120** Quō cōnsiliō nōs ad flūmen īmus?  
With what purpose do we go to the river?

**121** Quō cōnsiliō tū stilum sūmis?  
With what purpose do you take up a pen?

**122** Quō cōnsiliō Iūlius Caesar mare trānsiit?  
With what purpose did Julius Caesar cross the sea?

**123** Quō cōnsiliō agricola et fīlius ēius Rōmam īvērunt?  
With what purpose did the farmer and his son go to Rome?

**124** Quō cōnsiliō discipulī ad lūdum veniunt?  
With what purpose do pupils come to school?

**125** Quō cōnsiliō tū in lēctum tē iacis?  
With what purpose do you throw yourself into bed?

**126** Quō cōnsiliō Rōmānus post mūrum sē posuit?  
With what purpose did the Roman put himself behind the wall?

**127** Quō cōnsiliō Hannibal Alpēs trānsiit?  
With what purpose did Hannibal cross the Alps?

**128** Quō cōnsiliō Horātius pontem dēfendit?  
With what purpose did Horatius defend the bridge?

**129** Quō cōnsiliō Rōmānī ad Circum conveniēbant?  
With what purpose did the Romans gather at the Circus?

**130** Quō cōnsiliō verna cum Mārcō ad lūdum ībat?  
With what purpose did the verna go to school with Marcus?

**131** Quō cōnsiliō nūntius Rōmam currēbat?  
With what purpose did the messenger run to Rome?

**132** Quō cōnsiliō vōs domum ā lūdō redītis?  
With what purpose do you return home from school?

**133** Quō cōnsiliō cīvēs fūnem dē portā dēmīsērunt?  
With what purpose did the citizens let down a rope from the gate?

**134** Quō cōnsiliō Horātius in Tiberim dēsiluit?  
With what purpose did Horatius leap into the Tiber?

**135** Sī magister imperat: 'Aperī omnēs fenestrās!' quō cōnsiliō ē sellā venīs?  
If the master orders: 'Open all the windows!' with what purpose do you come from your chair?

**136** Quō cōnsiliō magister ad lūdum venit?  
With what purpose does the master come to school?

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LXXI, §§401-410

§401. Review the word lists in §§510, 511.
```

```
§402. The Gerund. Suppose we had to translate the sentence

By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory

We can see that overcoming here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in -ing, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the gerund, declined as a neuter of the second declension in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun overcoming, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows:
[1] Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an accusative.

Nom.    superāre, overcoming, to overcome     INFINITIVE
Gen.    superandī, of overcoming              }
Dat.    superandō,  for overcoming            }
Acc.    superandum, overcoming                } GERUND
Abl.    superandō, by overcoming              }

Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin

Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit
```

```
§403. The gerund[2] is formed by adding -ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō, to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below:
[2] The gerund is the neuter singular of the future passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation. (Cf. §374.d.)

PARADIGM OF THE GERUND

        CONJ. I   CONJ. II   CONJ. III              CONJ. IV
Gen.    amandī    monendī    regendī    capiendī    audiendī
Dat.    amandō    monendō    regendō    capiendō    audiendō
Acc.    amandum   monendum   regendum   capiendum   audiendum
Abl.    amandō    monendō    regendō    capiendō    audiendō

a. Give the gerund of cūrō, dēleō, sūmō, iaciō, veniō.

b. Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see §493). Give the gerund of cōnor, vereor, sequor, patior, partior.
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§404. The Gerundive. The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate the plan of waging war, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say cōnsilium gerendī bellum; or we may use the gerundive and say cōnsilium bellī gerendī, which means, literally, the plan of the war to be waged, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it.
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§405. Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive:

        GERUND                         GERUNDIVE
Gen. Spēs faciendī pācem            Spēs faciendae pācis
Dat. Locus idōneus pugnandō         Locus idōneus castrīs pōnendīs
         A place suitable for          A place suitable for
            fighting                      pitching camp
Acc. Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendum Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendōs
                                           hostīs
         He sent horsemen to pursue     He sent horsemen to pursue
                                           the enemy
Abl. Nārrandō fābulās magister     Nārrandīs fābulīs magister
          puerīs placuit                puerīs placuit
         The teacher pleased the       The teacher pleased the
            boys by telling stories       boys by telling stories

a. We observe

(1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective. (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object. (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun.
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§406. RULE. Gerund and Gerundive.

1. The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns.

2. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual.
```

```
§407. RULE. Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose. The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with ad, or the genitive with causā[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose.
[3] causā always follows the genitive.

GERUND                        GERUNDIVE
Ad audiendum vēnērunt or    Ad urbem videndam vēnērunt or
  Audiendī causā vēnērunt       Urbis videndae causā vēnērunt
  They came to hear             They came to see the city

NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,--vēnērunt ut audīrent; vēnērunt ut urbem vidērent. In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common.
```

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§408. We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, equus Galbae, Galba’s horse. If, now, we wish to express the idea the horse is Galba’s, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, equus est Galbae. Hence this is called the predicate genitive.
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§409. RULE. Predicate Genitive. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of sum, and is then called the predicate genitive.
```

```
§410. IDIOMS

alīcui negōtium dare, to employ someone
  (lit. to give business to some one)
novīs rēbus studēre, to be eager for a revolution
  (lit. to be eager for new things)
reī mīlitāris perītissimus, very skillful in the art of war
sē suaque omnia, themselves and all their possessions
```

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| fīunt | become, be made, from fio |
| rudēs | stick, from rudis |
| pāscēbant | feed, feed on, from pasco |
| dominī | master, from dominus |
| cūrābant | arrange, from curo |
| pecūniam | money, from pecunia |
| numerābant | count, add up, from numero |
| Domina | lady of the house, mistress |
| servās | slave, from serva |
| vestēs | garment, clothing, from vestis |
| īnfantem | not speaking, from infans |
| togam | toga, from toga |
| nūntius | messenger |
| vernae | slave born in the master's, from verna |
| portat | bear, carry, from porto |
| causā | cause, reason |
| gladiātōrēs | gladiator, from gladiator |
| saepius | often, oft |
| Plērīque | the majority, most |
| capillōs | hair, from capillus |
| effugere | flee, from effugio |
| mālunt | prefer, from malo |
| servīre | serve, from servio |
| servitūtis | slavery, from servitus |
| dēmīsērunt | drop, let fall, from demitto |

## Cāsus Ablātivus, the ablative case

### The person who needs it

Eīs enim quī labōrant opus est cibō means those who work need food.

Eīs names those who need food.

With opus est, the person who needs something is dative.

### The thing needed

Cibō names the food they need.

With opus est, the needed thing is ablative.

Multō labōre opus est means there is need of much labour. Labōre is the needed thing, so it is ablative.

**137** Contentī sumus fundō nostrō.  
We are content with our farm.

**138** Vaccae enim lāc et cāseum, gallīnae anatēsque ōva, pecora carnem praebent.  
For the cows provide milk and cheese, the hens and ducks eggs, the cattle meat.

**139** Flūmen etiam, quod praeter vīllam fluit, piscibus plēnum est.  
The river too, which flows past the villa, is full of fish.

**140** Haec omnia nūllō labōre habēmus, sed sī frūmentum et vīnum cupimus, multō labōre opus est.  
All these things we have with no labour, but if we want grain and wine, there is need of much labour.

**141** Nostrī autem servī fundum dīligenter cūrant; nam dominum amant, quia et iūstus et benignus est; sī enim servus laude dīgnus est, et laudem et praemium accipit, sed is quī indīgnus est sine morā poenās dat.  
Our slaves, however, look after the farm diligently; for they love their master, because he is both just and kind; for if a slave deserves praise, he receives both praise and a reward, but one who deserves none is punished without delay.

**142** Apud Claudium contrā miserī sunt servī; dominus enim ipse Rōmae habitat, vīlicus autem est omnium hominum iniūstissimus.  
At Claudius's, on the other hand, the slaves are wretched; for the master himself lives in Rome, and the bailiff is the most unjust of all men.

**143** Servōs enim cottīdiē ferit, neque unquam satis cibī eīs dat.  
For he beats the slaves every day, and never gives them enough food.

**144** Eī quī ēsuriunt nōn bene labōrāre possunt.  
Those who are hungry cannot work well.

**145** Nōlunt igitur servī Claudiam dīligenter labōrāre, et quam plūrimī ē fundō aufugiunt.  
So Claudius's slaves will not work diligently, and as many as possible run away from the farm.

**146** Eīs enim quī labōrant opus est cibō; eīs etiam qui nōn labōrant cibō opus est vīvendī causā.  
For those who work need food; those too who do not work need food for the sake of living.

**147** Quālī pēnsō contentus est magister?  
With what sort of exercise is the master content?

**148** Quālibus servīs contentus est dominus?  
With what sort of slaves is a master content?

**149** Quibus rēbus mēnsa magistrī plena est?  
With what things is the master's table full?

**150** Quibus rēbus nostra camera plēna est?  
With what things is our room full?

**151** Quālibus hominibus nostra camera plēna est?  
With what sort of people is our room full?

**152** Quibus rēbus malum pēnsum est plēnum?  
With what things is a bad exercise full?

**153** Quibus animālibus ager est plēnus? Quibus avibus fundus? Quibus auimālibus mare?  
With what animals is a field full? With what birds a farm? With what animals the sea?

**154** Quā rē dīgnus es, sī pēnsum bene fēcistī?  
What do you deserve if you have done your exercise well?

**155** Quā rē dīgnus es, sī pēnsum male fēcistī?  
What do you deserve if you have done your exercise badly?

**156** Quā rē tibi opus est scrībendī causā?  
What do you need for the sake of writing?

**157** Quibus membrīs tibi opus est videndī causā? Et natandī causā? Et ambulandī causā?  
What limbs do you need for the sake of seeing? And of swimming? And of walking?

**158** Cūr servī apud Cornēlium libenter manēbant?  
Why did the slaves gladly stay at Cornelius's?

**159** Cūr apud Claudium nōn manēbant?  
Why did they not stay at Claudius's?

**160** Quis nostrōrum rēgum iūstus erat et benīgnus?  
Which of our kings was just and kind?

**161** Quis nostrōrum rēgum poenās dedit, quia iniūstus erat?  
Which of our kings was punished because he was unjust?

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LVI, §§315-317

§315. The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses.

COMPARATIVE              SUPERLATIVE
citerior, hither      (citimus, hithermost)
interior, inner       (intimus, inmost)
prior, former          prīmus, first
propior, nearer        proximus, next, nearest
ulterior, further      ultimus, furthest
```

```
§316. In the sentence Galba is a head taller than Sextus, the phrase a head taller expresses the measure of difference in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be Galba is taller than Sextus by a head. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the ablative of the measure of difference.

EXAMPLES

Galba est altior capite quam Sextus
  Galba is a head taller (taller by a head) than Sextus.
Illud iter ad Italiam est multō brevius
  That route to Italy is much shorter (shorter by much)
```

```
§317. RULE. Ablative of the Measure of Difference. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference.

a. Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives

eō, by this, by that           nihilō,[1] by nothing
hōc, by this                   paulō, by a little
multō, by much
[1] nihil was originally nihilum and declined like pīlum. There is no plural.
```

```
§453. The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in English by the prepositions with (or by), from (or by), and in (or at). The constructions growing out of these meanings are

I. Ablative rendered with (or by):
  1. Cause (§102)
  2. Means (§103)
  3. Accompaniment (§104)
  4. Manner (§105)
  5. Measure of difference (§317)
  6. With a participle (ablative absolute) (§381)
  7. Description or quality (§§444, 445)
  8. Specification (§398)

II. Ablative rendered from (or by):
  1. Place from which (§§179, 264)
  2. Ablative of separation (§180)
  3. Personal agent with a passive verb (§181)
  4. Comparison without quam (§309)

III. Ablative rendered in (or at):
  1. Place at or in which (§§265, 266)
  2. Time when or within which (§275)
```

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| fundō | sling, from fundus |
| lāc | basin |
| cāseum | cheese |
| praebent | present, from praebeo |
| piscibus | fish, from piscis |
| plēnum | full, from plenus |
| vīnum | wine |
| cupimus | desire, wish, from cupio |
| opus | work, task |
| dīligenter | industriously, diligently |
| iūstus | just, fair, from justus |
| benignus | kind, favorable |
| laude | praise, from laus |
| dīgnus | appropriate |
| indīgnus | unworthy, undeserving |
| poenās | punishment, penalty, from poena |
| satis | enough, sufficiently |
| Claudiam | Claudius, from Claudia |
| aufugiunt | flee, flee from, from aufugio |
| vīvendī | live, be alive, from vivo |
| libenter | willingly, gladly |
| iniūstus | unjust, wrongful, from injustus |

## Give the forms: lāc, pecus

**162** lāc  
milk

**163** pecus  
cattle

## Give the forms: pecus, carō

**164** pecus  
cattle

**165** carō  
flesh

## Give the forms: laus

**166** laus  
praise

## Verbum Impersōnāle, impersonal verbs

### Licet marks the person in the dative

Ōtium igitur agere eī licuit means, "So he was allowed to take a holiday."

Licuit is a past form of licet. Agere names the permitted action, and the dative eī names the person permitted.

### The infinitive's subject is accusative

Patrem autem rēs agendī causā Tībur īre oportuit means, "But his father had to go to Tibur to do business."

Īre names the required action. Patrem is its subject, so Patrem is accusative.

**167** Mārcus ōlim aegrōtābat neque ad lūdum īre volēbat.  
Marcus was once ill and did not want to go to school.

**168** Ōtium igitur agere eī licuit.  
So he was allowed to take a holiday.

**169** Patrem autem rēs agendī causā Tībur īre oportuit et Mārcus illum rogāvit: 'Licetne mihi, Ō pater, tēcum venīre?  
But his father had to go to Tibur to do business, and Marcus asked him: 'May I come with you, father?

**170** Volō enim rūrī errāre et vōcēs avium audīre, dum tū negōtium in urbe agis?'  
For I want to wander in the country and hear the voices of the birds while you do your business in the town.'

**171** Cornēlius respondit: 'Sī vīs, mī fīlī, mēcum venīre, tibi licet.  
Cornelius answered: 'If you want to come with me, my son, you may.

**172** Properā tamen, quia ego iam parātus sum.'  
Hurry, though, because I am ready now.'

**173** Mox extrā rūra Cornēliāna erant et, dum eunt, multa inter sē disserēbant.  
Soon they were outside the Cornelian estate and, as they went, discussed many things with each other.

**174** Subitō leporem in viā occīsum vīdērunt, et Mārcus 'Ō miserum leporem!' inquit.  
Suddenly they saw a hare killed on the road, and Marcus said, 'Poor hare!

**175** 'Cūr hominēs volunt animālia interficere?' Pater 'Hoc nesciō,' inquit, 'barbarī tamen multō plūs quam nōs hoc faciunt, quia animālia ferōciōra apud eos sunt; nōnnūlla etiam hominēs vorant.  
Why do men want to kill animals?' His father said, 'I don't know; the barbarians, though, do this much more than we do, because the animals among them are fiercer; some even devour men.

**176** In Āfricā, ut incolae dīcunt, leō, quī rēx animālium vocātur, noctū vīcum saepissimē intrat et īnfantem aufert vel, sī māgnopere ēsurit, hominēs etiam vī petit.  
In Africa, as the inhabitants say, the lion, which is called the king of animals, very often enters a village at night and carries off a baby, or, if it is very hungry, even attacks men by force.

**177** In Indīs tigris habitat, quī neque hominēs neque ferās, nisi elephantum, timet.  
In India lives the tiger, which fears neither men nor wild beasts, except the elephant.

**178** Apud nōs etiam aper in mediīs silvīs latet; nōn carnem ille hūmānām, ut leō tigrisque, vorat, sed ferōcissimus tamen est vēnātōribusque diū resistit.'  
Among us too the boar lurks in the depths of the woods; it does not devour human flesh, as the lion and tiger do, but it is very fierce all the same and holds out a long time against the hunters.'

**179** Quid vōbīs facere nōn licet, dum Latīnam linguam discitis?  
What are you not allowed to do while you learn Latin?

**180** Quid vōs facere oportet, dum Latīnam linguam discitis?  
What must you do while you learn Latin?

**181** Ubi tē labōrāre oportet? Ubi lūdere licet?  
Where must you work? Where may you play?

**182** Quandō ad lūdum venīre tibi nōn licēbit?  
When will you not be allowed to come to school?

**183** Curritne lepus ex omnibus animālibus celerrimē?  
Does the hare run fastest of all animals?

**184** Quod animal ferōcissimum est?  
Which animal is fiercest?

**185** Quālem carnem tigris libenter vorat?  
What sort of flesh does the tiger gladly devour?

**186** Quandō leō hominēs oppūgnat?  
When does the lion attack men?

**187** Quamdiū aper vēnātōribus resistit?  
How long does the boar hold out against the hunters?

**188** Unde leō saepe īnfantem aufert?  
From where does the lion often carry off a baby?

**189** Quandō Cornēlius et Mārcus multa inter se disserēbant?  
When were Cornelius and Marcus discussing many things with each other?

**190** Quō cōnsiliō Cornēlius Tībur iit?  
With what purpose did Cornelius go to Tibur?

**191** Ubi erat Tībur oppidum?  
Where was the town of Tibur?

**192** Quam procul Rōmā aberat?  
How far was it from Rome?

**193** Quae ferae in Britanniā habitant?  
Which wild beasts live in Britain?

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXVII, §§212-216

§212. Learn the principal parts of possum, I am able, I can, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.)

a. Possum, I can, is a compound of potis, able, and sum, I am.
```

```
§213. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative. The infinitive (cf. §173) is a verbal noun. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, Is virōs fugere iussit, he commanded the men to flee.
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§214. RULE. Subject of the Infinitive. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.
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§215. The Complementary Infinitive. In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls. This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are possum, I am able, I can; properō, mātūrō, I hasten; temptō, I attempt; as

Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt,
  the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls
Bellum gerere mātūrant,
  they hasten to wage war

a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.

Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt, bad boys are not able to (or cannot) be good.

Observe that bonī agrees with puerī.
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§216. The Infinitive used as a Noun. In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with est, as

Superāre est grātum, to conquer is pleasing
Vidēre est crēdere, to see is to believe

a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as

Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs,
  for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many

b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence superāre est grātum, the predicate adjective grātum is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with superāre the subject.
```

| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| aegrōtābat | be sick, from aegroto |
| licuit | be clear, from liqueo |
| oportuit | require, order, from oportet |
| Licetne | it is permitted, one may, from liceo |
| negōtium | business, affair |
| parātus | prepare for, prepare, from paro |
| disserēbant | unfasten, unbar, from dissero |
| leporem | hare, from lepus |
| interficere | kill, from interficio |
| ferōciōra | wild, bold, from ferox |
| vorant | swallow, devour, from voro |
| leō | lion |
| vīcum | village, from vicus |
| aufert | bear, remove, from aufero |
| māgnopere | greatly, exceedingly |
| vī | strength, power, from vis |
| Indīs | India, from Indi |
| tigris | tiger |
| ferās | a wild beast, from fera |
| timet | fear, from timeo |
| aper | wild boar |
| hūmānām | human, from humanus |

## Give the forms: leō, tigris

**194** leō  
lion

**195** tigris  
tiger

## Give the forms: tigris, aper

**196** tigris  
tiger

**197** aper  
boar, wild boar (as animal, food, or used as a Legion standard/symbol)

## Give the forms: lepus

**198** lepus  
hare

## Futūrum Perfectum, the future perfect

### Reaping comes before carrying

Cum segetem messuerimus, tum frūmentum in horreum ferēmus says that the crop is reaped before the grain is carried into the barn.

The future perfect presents an action as completed before another future action. Messuerimus presents the completed reaping before ferēmus presents the carrying.

### Three completed future actions

The same contrast appears in Cum pluerit et sōl fulserit, tum plantae tenerae ex humō surgent.

Pluerit and fulserit are future perfect. They present rain and sunshine as completed before surgent presents the plants rising.

Messuerimus, pluerit, and fulserit each present a completed action before another future action.

**199** Prīmō vēre agricola sēmina in agrō serēbat, cum Mārcus forte appropinquāvit.  
In early spring the farmer was sowing seed in the field, when Marcus happened to come near.

**200** Hic agricolam rogāvit: 'Cūr nihil in agrīs crēscit?' Ille dē respōnsō diū cōgitāvit, tum ita respondit: 'Cum pluerit et sōl fulserit, tum plantae tenerae ex humō surgent; aestāte aristae flāvēscent; autumnō segetem metēmus.  
He asked the farmer: 'Why is nothing growing in the fields?' He thought a long time about his answer, then answered thus: 'When it has rained and the sun has shone, then tender plants will rise from the ground; in summer the ears will turn yellow; in autumn we shall reap the crop.

**201** Cum segetem messuerimus, tum frūmentum in horreum ferēmus.  
When we have reaped the crop, then we shall carry the grain into the barn.

**202** Dum autem sermōnem tēcum cōnferō, cessō; neque ante pluviam tōtum agrum sēverō.'  
But while I talk with you, I am idle; and I shall not have sown the whole field before the rain.'

**203** Deinde Mārcus 'Num pluet?' inquit.  
Then Marcus said, 'Surely it won't rain?

**204** 'Quōmodo hoc scīs?'  
How do you know this?'

**205** Tum agricola 'Multa', inquit, 'sunt sīgna pluviae.  
Then the farmer said, 'There are many signs of rain.

**206** Nōnne hirundinēs vidēs?  
Don't you see the swallows?

**207** Suprā fluvium multae volitant; māgnī igitur erunt imbrēs.  
Many are flitting above the river; so there will be heavy showers.

**208** Nōnne cornīcem ibi vidēs?  
Don't you see the crow there?

**209** Ecce, cornīx sōla in rīpā fluviī hūc illūc ambulat et plēnā vōce pluviam vocat.  
Look, the crow walks alone here and there on the riverbank and calls for rain with a full voice.

**210** Poēta noster haec cecinit: Tum cornīx plēnā pluviam vocat improba vōce Et sōla in siccā sēcum spatiātur harēnā.  
Our poet sang this: Then the shameless crow calls for rain with a full voice, and walks alone with herself on the dry sand.

**211** Haec et alia sunt sīgna pluviae.  
These and other things are signs of rain.

**212** Ecce autem certissimum sīgnum; dēnsa enim nūbēs inter nōs et sōlem pendet.  
But look, the surest sign; a dense cloud hangs between us and the sun.

**213** Nisi tū quam celerrimē domum cucurreris, imber tē intercipiet; equidem, nisi nunc properābō, nōn ante imbrem agrum sēverō.'  
Unless you run home as fast as you can, the shower will catch you; I for my part, unless I hurry now, shall not have sown the field before the shower.'

**214** Quandō in campum ībis? e.g. Cum pēnsum meum fēcerō, in campum ībō.  
When will you go into the field? e.g. When I have done my exercise, I shall go into the field.

**215** Quandō ad lūdum redībis?  
When will you go back to school?

**216** Quandō seges crēscet?  
When will the crop grow?

**217** Quandō pluet?  
When will it rain?

**218** Quandō magister contentus erit?  
When will the master be content?

**219** Quī discipulus praemium accipiet?  
Which pupil will receive the prize?

**220** Quandō dormītum ībis?  
When will you go to sleep?

**221** Quandō Mārcus vir erit?  
When will Marcus be a man?

**222** Quandō agricolae frūmentum in horreum ferent?  
When will the farmers carry the grain into the barn?

**223** Quandō plantae tenerae ex humō surgent?  
When will the tender plants rise from the ground?

**224** Quandō tū contentus eris?  
When will you be content?

**225** Quandō vōs Latīnam linguam bene dīcere poteritis?  
When will you be able to speak Latin well?

**226** Quōcum Mārcus sermōnem cōnferēbat?  
With whom was Marcus talking?

**227** Quibus rēbus caelum saepe est plēnum?  
With what things is the sky often full?

**228** Quō tempore annī hirundinēs in Britanniam redeunt?  
At what time of year do the swallows return to Britain?

**229** Quae sunt quattuor tempora annī?  
What are the four seasons of the year?

**230** Quō tempore annī agricolae serunt? metunt? nōn labōrant?  
At what time of year do farmers sow? reap? not work?

**231** Quō tempore annī plūrimum pluit?  
At what time of year does it rain most?

**232** Quōmodo vocātur ille poēta quī dē cornīce cecinit?  
What is that poet called who sang about the crow?

**233** Dum ad lūdum cum amīcō venīs, quid per tōtum iter facis?  
While you come to school with a friend, what do you do the whole way?

**234** Dē quibus rēbus sermōnem cum hōc amīcō cōnfers?  
About what things do you talk with this friend?

**235** Quandō sōl nōn fulget?  
When does the sun not shine?

**236** Hieme quid humī iacet?  
In winter what lies on the ground?

**237** Quō hirundinēs autumnō volant?  
Where do the swallows fly in autumn?

**238** Cūr agricolae cornīcēs nōn amant?  
Why do farmers not love crows?

**239** Scrībe ea nōmina avium quae scīs.  
Write the names of the birds you know.

**240** Quid nunc in caelō vidēs?  
What do you see in the sky now?

```
D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXIII, §§194-195

§194.              CONJ. I  CONJ. II  CONJ. III         CONJ. IV
                  amō      moneō     regō    capiō     audiō
  PERFECT STEMS   amāv-    monu-     rēx-    cēp-      audīv-

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN -erā-

SINGULAR
I had loved  I had advised  I had ruled  I had taken  I had heard

1. amā´veram    monu´eram      rē´xeram     cē´peram     audī´veram
2. amā´verās    monu´erās      rē´xerās     cē´perās     audī´verās
3. amā´verat    monu´erat      rē´xerat     cē´perat     audī´verat

   PLURAL
1. amāverā´mus  monuerā´mus    rēxerā´mus   cēperā´mus   audīverā´mus
2. amāverā´tis  monuerā´tis    rēxerā´tis   cēperā´tis   audīverā´tis
3. amā´verant   monu´erant     rē´xerant    cē´perant    audī´verant

FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN -eri-

  SINGULAR
I shall have  I shall have  I shall have  I shall have  I shall have
   loved         advised       ruled         taken         heard

1. amā´verō     monu´erō     rē´xerō       cē´perō       audī´verō
2. amā´veris    monu´eris    rē´xeris      cē´peris      audī´veris
3. amā´verit    monu´erit    rē´xerit      cē´perit      audī´verit

   PLURAL
1. amāve´rimus  monue´rimus  rēxe´rimus    cēpe´rimus    audīve´rimus
2. amāve´ritis  monue´ritis  rēxe´ritis    cēpe´ritis    audīve´ritis
3. amā´verint   monu´erint   rē´xerint     cē´perint     audī´verint

1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here.

2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of dō, portō, dēleō, moveō, habeō, dīcō, discēdō, faciō, veniō, mūniō.
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§195. The Perfect Active Infinitive. The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem.

CONJ       PERFECT STEM  PERFECT INFINITIVE
  I.       amāv-         amāvis´se, to have loved
 II.       monu-         monuis´se, to have advised
III. (a) rēx-          rēxis´se, to have ruled
     (b) cēp-          cēpis´se, to have taken
 IV.       audīv        audīvis´se, to have heard
sum        fu-           fuis´se, to have been

1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of dō, portō, dēleō, moveō, habeō, dīcō, discēdō, faciō, veniō, mūniō.
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| word | gloss |
|---|---|
| vēre | spring, springtime, from ver |
| sēmina | seed, from semen |
| forte | chance, from fors |
| crēscit | come forth, from cresco |
| pluerit | rain, from pluo |
| sōl | sun |
| fulserit | prop up, support, from fulcio |
| plantae | cutting, heel, from planta |
| tenerae | tender, from tener |
| aestāte | summer, from aestas |
| aristae | awn, beard of an ear, from arista |
| autumnō | autumn, from auctumnus |
| segetem | grain field, from seges |
| metēmus | reap, from meto |
| horreum | storehouse |
| ferēmus | carry, bear, from fero |
| sermōnem | conversation, discussion, from sermo |
| cōnferō | bring together, carry |
| cessō | be remiss |
| pluviam | rain, shower, from pluvia |
| sīgna | signal, sign, from signum |
| hirundinēs | swallow, from hirundo |
| volitant | fly about, hover over, from volito |
| imbrēs | rain, shower, from imber |
| cornīcem | crow, from cornix |
| Poēta | poet |
| cecinit | sing, celebrate, from cano |
| improba | wicked, from improbus |
| siccā | dry, from siccus |
| spatiātur | walk, from spatior |
| harēnā | sand, grains of sand |
| dēnsa | dense, from densus |
| nūbēs | cloud |
| equidem | truly, indeed |
| properābō | hurry, speed up, from propero |
| fulget | flash, shine, from fulgeo |
| Hieme | winter, from hiems |