Prīmus et Secundus Annus, Lēctiōnēs 9–15

Prīma Dēclīnātiō, the first declension

Rubra agrees with terra

Terra rubra est, sed aqua caerulea means the land is red, but the water is blue.

Rubra and caerulea agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

First-declension nouns are feminine

Feminine is the gender normally assigned to first-declension nouns.

Terra, īnsula, and paenīnsula are first-declension nouns. Their adjectives therefore take feminine forms such as rubra, māgna, and longa.

1
Here is land, there is water.
Hīchic: here
estsum: be; exist
terra,land
illīcillic: yonder, there
estsum: be; exist
aqua.water
2
Look! here you see land, there water.
3
What is the land like?
4
The land is red, but the water blue.
5
Now I point to an island; Corsica is an island, Britain too is an island.
6
Britain is a big island, Corsica a small one.
7
Is Italy an island?
8
No, Italy is not an island but a peninsula.
9
Neither Italy nor Spain is an island; Italy is a long peninsula, Spain an almost square peninsula, Greece a pointed peninsula.
10
What sort of land is Switzerland?

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson VII, §§57-61

§57. In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a. All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a belong to the First Declension. It is also called the Ā-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel a plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:

CASE  NOUN         TRANSLATION                     USE AND GENERAL MEANING OF EACH CASE
                   SINGULAR
Nom.  do´min-a     the lady                        The subject
Gen.  domin-ae     of the lady, or the lady’s      The possessor of something
Dat.  domin-ae     to or for the lady              Expressing the relation to or for, especially the indirect object
Acc.  domin-am     the lady                        The direct object
Abl.  domin-ā      from, with, by, in, the lady    Separation (from), association or means (with, by), place where or time when (in, at)
                   PLURAL
Nom.  domin-ae     the ladies
Gen.  domin-ā´rum  of the ladies, or the ladies’
Dat.  domin-īs     to or for the ladies            The same as the singular
Acc.  domin-ās     the ladies
Abl.  domin-īs     from, with, by, in, the ladies

§58. The Base. That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the base.

Thus, in the declension above, domin- is the base and -a is the termination of the nominative singular.

§59. Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.

pugna, terra, lūna, ancil´la, corō´na, īn´sula, silva

§60. Gender. In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called natural gender. Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? She is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken it home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called grammatical gender.

Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Thus we have in Latin the three words, lapis, a stone; rūpēs, a cliff; and saxum, a rock. Lapis is masculine, rūpēs feminine, and saxum neuter. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and must always be learned, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.

§61. Gender of First-Declension Nouns. Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus silva is feminine, but nauta, sailor, and agricola, farmer, are masculine.

terra: land
illīc: yonder, there
aqua: water
īnsulam: island, from insula
Britannia: Britain
Ītalia: Italy
paenīnsula: peninsula
Hispānia: Spain
ferē: nearly, almost
Graecia: Greece
acūta: of small radius, from acutus
Helvētia: of, a people of Cen, from Helvetius

11
Switzerland is neither an island nor a peninsula, but a landlocked country.
12
Britain is our native land.
13
Malta is our province.
14
Here I point to Rome; Spain was a Roman province; Gaul too was a Roman province.
15
Now I point to another Roman province; Sicily too, a big island, was a province, but Germany was not a province.
16
What is Spain? Sardinia? Switzerland?
17
What sort of land, and how big, is Sicily? and Italy?
18
Which island is big, Sardinia or Ireland?
19
Which peninsula is long, Italy or Spain?
20
Which island was a Roman province?

inclūsa: shut up, imprison, from includo
patria: fatherland
Melita: Malta
prōvincia: province
Rōmam: Rome, from Roma
Rōmāna: Roman, from Romanus
Gallia: Gaul
aliam: another, other, from alius
mōnstrō: show
Sicilia: Sicily
Germānia: Germany
Utra: which, whichever, from uter
Hibernia: Ireland

21
Whose native land is Britain?
22
Whose province is Malta?
23
What sort of door do you have?
24
What sort of sentence are you writing?
25
That is a ball.
26
I touch the tongue.
27
The blackboard is black.
28
Britain is a big island.
29
We see a shut window.
30
You are sitting.

31
I point to Britain, not Gaul.
32
This page is mine.
33
Malta is our province.

Numerus Plūrālis, the plural

-ae marks plural subjects

Multae prōvinciae sunt means "There are many provinces." Prōvinciae is the subject and ends in -ae.

The adjective multae agrees with prōvinciae and takes the same -ae ending.

-ās marks plural direct objects

Nōnne multās etiam īnsulās vidētis asks whether the listeners see many islands too. Īnsulās is the direct object and ends in -ās.

Īnsula belongs to the first declension because its nominative singular ends in -a.

First-declension nouns use -ae as plural subjects and -ās as plural direct objects. The adjective multās agrees with īnsulās.

The forms of domina confirm -ae in the nominative plural and -ās in the accusative plural.

Noun

-ae also marks predicate adjectives

Nōn omnēs sunt māgnae means "Not all are big." Māgnae is a predicate adjective and agrees with the plural subject omnēs.

Multae et ferē innumerae sunt īnsulae uses -ae on both predicate adjectives and on the subject īnsulae.

34
There are many provinces: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten.
35
How many islands are there?
36
Don't you see many islands too?
37
Look! I point to many islands: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten.
38
The islands are many and almost countless.
39
How many big islands are there?
40
The big islands are few, three or four: Britain, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily.
41
How big are the islands?
42
Are they all big?
43
No, not all are big.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson II, §§23-30

§23. Inflection. Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, is, are; was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women. This is called inflection. The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its declension, that of a verb its conjugation.

§24. Number. Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding -s or -es to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare

Naut-a pugnat
  The sailor fights
Naut-ae pugnant
  The sailors fight

§25. RULE. Nouns that end in -a in the singular end in -ae in the plural.

§26. Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

agri´cola, farmer (agriculture)[1]
aqua, water (aquarium)
causa, cause, reason
do´mina, lady of the house, mistress (dominate)
filia, daughter (filial)
fortū´na, fortune
fuga, flight (fugitive)
iniū´ria, wrong, injury
lūna, moon (lunar)
nauta, sailor (nautical)
puel´la, girl
silva, forest (silvan)
terra, land (terrace)
[1] The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as causa, cause, no comparison is needed.

§27. Compare again the sentences

Nauta pugna-t
  The sailor fights
Nautae pugna-nt
  The sailors fight

In the first sentence the verb pugna-t is in the third person singular, in the second sentence pugna-nt is in the third person plural.

§28. RULE. Agreement of Verb. A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject.

§29. RULE. In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in -t, the third person plural in -nt. The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called personal endings.

§30. Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns he, she, it, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus nauta pugnat is translated the sailor fights, not the sailor he fights.

ama-t he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love (amity, amiable) labō´ra-t “ “ “ labors, is laboring, does labor nūntia-t[2] “ “ “ announces, is announcing, does announce porta-t “ “ “ carries, is carrying, does carry (porter) pugna-t “ “ “ fights, is fighting, does fight (pugnacious)
[2] The u in nūntiō is long by exception. (Cf. §12.2.)

§57. In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a. All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a belong to the First Declension. It is also called the Ā-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel a plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:

CASE  NOUN         TRANSLATION                     USE AND GENERAL MEANING OF EACH CASE
                   SINGULAR
Nom.  do´min-a     the lady                        The subject
Gen.  domin-ae     of the lady, or the lady’s      The possessor of something
Dat.  domin-ae     to or for the lady              Expressing the relation to or for, especially the indirect object
Acc.  domin-am     the lady                        The direct object
Abl.  domin-ā      from, with, by, in, the lady    Separation (from), association or means (with, by), place where or time when (in, at)
                   PLURAL
Nom.  domin-ae     the ladies
Gen.  domin-ā´rum  of the ladies, or the ladies’
Dat.  domin-īs     to or for the ladies            The same as the singular
Acc.  domin-ās     the ladies
Abl.  domin-īs     from, with, by, in, the ladies

Multae: much, from multus
ūna: one, from unus
duae: two, from duo
trēs: three
quattuor: four
quīnque: five
sex: six
septem: seven
octō: eight
novem: nine
decem: ten
Quot: where, to what place
Ecce: see! behold! there! here!
innumerae: innumerable, countless, from innumerus
Paucae: little, small in quantity, from paucus
vel: even, actually

44
Here you see two islands; one is big, the other small.
45
Sicily and Malta, how big are they, big or small?
46
One is big, the other small.
47
There you see six provinces: Britain, Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece.
48
Are they big or not?
49
Not all are big, but some are big, others small.
50
Some lands were Roman, others were barbarian: but no province was barbarian.
51
How many, and which, Roman provinces were islands?
52
How many shut windows do you see, and how many open ones?
53
Look at the map! How many islands do you see?

altera: the one, the other, from alter
barbarae: foreign, from barbara
nūlla: not any, none, from nullus

54
Are all the windows shut or not?
55
Do you write all the letters big or not?
56
How many letters do you write when you write 'carta Eurōpae'?
57
Write the opposites: many, all, these, they stand up, be silent, you answer.

cum: when
Eurōpae: Europe, from Europa
contrāria: opponent, adversary, from contrarium

Ordinālia, ordinal numbers

Numbers for order

Sexta hōra merīdiēs vocātur means "The sixth hour is called midday."

Sex in Māne sunt sex gives a count. Prīma, secunda, and sexta give places in that count.

Latin calls prīma, secunda, and sexta ordinal numbers. They answer which in order.

The form matches the noun

Ordinal numbers act as adjectives and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

Sexta matches hōra in feminine gender, singular number, and nominative case.

Quota hōra est asks which hour it is. Quota takes the same form as hōra.

In Nox quattuor vigiliās habet, prīmam, secundam, tertiam, quārtam, each ordinal describes one watch and takes the feminine singular accusative form.

58
There are twelve hours in all.
59
In the morning there are six: the first, the second and the rest; the sixth hour is called midday.
60
There are also six hours after midday.
61
What hour is it when we get up in the morning?
62
It is either the first or the second hour when we get up in the morning; it is the second hour when we have breakfast; the third when we learn Latin; the fourth when we learn French; the fifth when we learn mathematics; about the ninth when we play, the eleventh when we dine.
63
The night has four watches: the first, second, third, fourth.
64
It is either the first or the second watch when we fall asleep; then we sleep about three watches, nine hours, and in the morning get up again.
65
How many hours are there in the morning? How many after midday? How many in all?
66
What hour is it now? Which lesson is this?
67
What hour is it when you learn Latin? when you learn French? when you learn mathematics? when you have breakfast? when you play? when you dine? when you sleep? when you get up?
68
How many hours does the night have? How many hours does a watch have? How many chairs do you have? How many sentences does this page have?

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LVIII, §§327-331

§327. The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows:

1. Cardinal Numerals, answering the question how many? as, ūnus, one; duo, two; etc.

2. Ordinal Numerals, derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question in what order? as, prīmus, first; secundus, second; etc.

3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singulī, one at a time.

§328. The Cardinal Numerals. The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows:

1, ūnus         6, sex        11, ūndecim          16, sēdecim
2, duo          7, septem     12, duodecim         17, septendecim
3, trēs         8, octō       13, tredecim         18, duodēvīgintī
4, quattuor     9, novem      14, quattuordecim    19, ūndēvīgintī
5, quīnque     10, decem      15, quīndecim        20, vīgintī

a. Learn also centum = 100, ducentī = 200, mīlle = 1000.

§329. Declension of the Cardinals. Of the cardinals only ūnus, duo, trēs, the hundreds above one hundred, and mīlle used as a noun, are declinable.

a. ūnus is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like nūllus (cf. §§109, 470). The plural of ūnus is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, ūna castra, one camp; and with other nouns in the sense of only, as, Gallī ūnī, only the Gauls.

b. Learn the declension of duo, two; trēs, three; and mīlle, a thousand. (§479.)

c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of bonus; as,

ducentī,    -ae,   -a
ducentōrum, -ārum, -ōrum
  etc.        etc.   etc.

§330. We have already become familiar with sentences like the following:

Omnium avium aquila est vēlōcissima
  Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest
Hoc ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum
  This oracle was the most famous of all

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a partitive genitive.

§331. RULE. Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the partitive genitive.

a. Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting mīlle regularly take the ablative with ex or dē instead of the partitive genitive.

b. Mīlle, a thousand, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, mīlle mīlitēs, a thousand soldiers), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, decem mīlia mīlitum, ten thousand soldiers).

EXAMPLES:

Fortissimī hōrum sunt Germānī
  The bravest of these are the Germans
Decem mīlia hostium interfecta sunt
  Ten thousand (lit. thousands) of the enemy were slain
Ūna ex captīvīs erat soror rēgis
  One of the captives was the king’s sister

Duodecim: twelve
omnīnō: altogether, wholly
hōrae: hour, from hora
Māne: morning, morn
prīma: chiefs, nobles
secunda: second, from secundus
cēterae: the other, from ceter
sexta: August, from sextus
merīdiēs: midday
vocātur: call, summon, from voco
post: behind, after
Quota: how many, from quotus
Aut: or
tertia: repeat three times
Latīnam: Latin, from Latinus
quārta: fourth, from quartus
quīnta: fifth, from quintus
mathēmaticam: mathematical, from mathematicus
scientiam: knowledge, science, from scientia
nōna: Nones, abb. Non
lūdimus: play, mock, from ludo
undecima: alone, a single, from undecimus
cēnāmus: dine, eat dinner, from ceno
Nox: night
vigiliās: watch, vigil, from vigilia
prīmam: first, from primus
tertiam: third, from tertius
dormīmus: sleep, rest, from dormio
deinde: then, in the next place
iterum: again
lēctiō: reading
cēnās: dinner, from cena

Praepositiōnēs: Cāsus Accūsātīvus (Ubi?), prepositions with the accusative, where a thing is

Where with the accusative

Hic cameram intrat et prope tabulam stat et ante tabulam cartam pōnit. He comes into the room, stands near the blackboard, and puts the map in front of the blackboard.

Prope tabulam and ante tabulam answer where. Both prepositions take the accusative tabulam.

Two cases after a preposition

A preposition requires its noun to take the accusative or ablative.

The ablative is the other case that a preposition can require. Each preposition determines which case its noun takes.

Eight prepositions take the accusative

Ītalia igitur inter terrās Germāniam et Siciliam iacet. Italy lies between the lands Germany and Sicily.

Inter takes the accusative here: terrās, Germāniam, and Siciliam.

Intrā, extrā, prope, ante, post, suprā, īnfrā, and inter take the accusative, even when their phrases answer where.

69
The pupils sit inside the room; the master is outside the room.
70
He comes into the room and stands near the blackboard and puts the map in front of the blackboard.
71
No one sees the blackboard now, for the blackboard is behind the map, but everyone looks at the map.
72
The master asks: 'Where is Germany, above or below Italy?
73
Don't you understand?
74
Watch while I point this out.
75
Germany is above Italy and Italy is below Germany.
76
Which island is below Italy?' A pupil answers: 'The island of Sicily is below Italy.' The master says: 'You answer well; Italy, then, lies between the lands Germany and Sicily.
77
Italy is also between the peninsulas Spain and Greece.'
78
Sicily is below Italy and above Africa: it lies, then, between the lands Italy and Africa.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson VI, §§48-56

§48. The Ablative Case. Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab´la-tive.

§49. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular ends in -ā and the ablative plural in -īs.

a. Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as,

Nom. fīliă
Abl. fīliā

b. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortūna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.

§50. The Ablative Relation. The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by from.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by with or by.

3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by in or at.

a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.

§51. Prepositions. While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

§52. RULE. Object of a Preposition. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.

§53. Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

ā[1] or ab, from, away from
dē, from, down from
ē[1] or ex, from, out from, out of
cum, with
in, in, on
[1] ā and ē are used only before words beginning with a consonant; ab and ex are used before either vowels or consonants.

1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

§54. Adjectives. Examine the sentence

Puella parva bonam deam amat,
  the little girl loves the good goddess

In this sentence parva (little) and bonam (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called adjectives,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.
[2] Pick out the adjectives in the following: “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of parva shows that it belongs to puella, and the ending of bonam that it belongs to deam. Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement. Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.

§55. Examine the sentences

Puella est parva,
  the girl is little
Puella parva bonam deam amat,
  the little girl loves the good goddess

In the first sentence the adjective parva is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a predicate adjective. In the second sentence the adjectives parva and bonam are closely attached to the nouns puella and deam respectively, and are called attributive adjectives.

a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc´ative (Latin vocāre, “to call”). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.

b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? Pugnatne nauta? you would say Pugnat, he is fighting, or Nōn pugnat, he is not fighting.

§262. We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following:

Galba ad (or in) oppidum properat
Galba ab (dē or ex) oppidō properat
Galba in oppidō habitat

From these expressions we may deduce the following rules:

§263. RULE. Accusative of the Place to. The place to which is expressed by ad or in with the accusative. This answers the question Whither?

§264. RULE. Ablative of the Place from. The place from which is expressed by ā or ab, dē, ē or ex, with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence? (Cf. Rule, §179.)

§265. RULE. Ablative of the Place at or in. The place at or in which is expressed by the ablative with in. This answers the question Where?

a. The ablative denoting the place where is called the locative ablative (cf. locus, place).

§266. Exceptions. Names of towns, small islands,[1] domus, home, rūs, country, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as,
[1] Small islands are classed with towns because they generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as the name of the island.

Galba Athēnās properat, Galba hastens to Athens Galba Athēnīs properat, Galba hastens from Athens Galba Athēnīs habitat, Galba lives at (or in) Athens Galba domum properat, Galba hastens home Galba rūs properat, Galba hastens to the country Galba domō properat, Galba hastens from home Galba rūre properat, Galba hastens from the country Galba rūrī (less commonly rūre) habitat, Galba lives in the country

a. Names of countries, like Germānia, Italia, etc., do not come under these exceptions. With them prepositions must not be omitted.

§267. The Locative Case. We saw above that the place-relation expressed by at or in is regularly covered by the locative ablative. However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the locative case. This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, domī, at home, and a few other words.

§268. RULE. Locative and Locative Ablative. To express the place in which with names of towns and small islands, if they are singular and of the first or second declension, use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as,

Galba Rōmae habitat, Galba lives at Rome
Galba Corinthī habitat, Galba lives at Corinth
Galba domī habitat, Galba lives at home

Here Rōmae, Corinthī, and domī are locatives, being singular and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in

Galba Athēnīs habitat, Galba lives at Athens,
Galba Pompēiīs habitat, Galba lives at Pompeii

Athēnīs and Pompēiīs are locative ablatives. These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives Athēnae and Pompēiī are plural and there is no plural locative case form.

§269. The word domus, home, house, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension. Learn its declension (§468).

§338. A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, hortor, I encourage; vereor, I fear. Such verbs are called deponent because they have laid aside (dē-pōnere, to lay aside) the active forms.

a. Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms which will be noted later. (Sec§§375, 403.b.)

§339. The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as,

Conj. I         hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum, encourage
Conj. II        vereor, verērī, veritus sum, fear
Conj. III (a) sequor, sequī, secūtus sum, follow
          (b) patior, patī, passus sum, suffer, allow
Conj. IV        partior, partīrī, partītus sum, share, divide

Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See §493.) Patior is conjugated like the passive of capiō (§492).

§340. PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are

ante, before
apud, among
circum, around
contrā, against, contrary to
extrā, outside of
in, into, in, against, upon
inter, between, among
intrā, within
ob, on account of (quam ob rem, wherefore, therefore)
per, through, by means of
post, after, behind
propter, on account of, because of
trāns, across, over

a. Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the ablative, §209.

intrā: within, in
extrā: beyond, outside of
intrat: enter, from intro
prope: nearly
ante: before
nam: for
Ubi: where
suprā: on top
īnfrā: below, on the under side
dum: while, as long as
Bene: well
igitur: therefore, then
inter: between, among
iacet: lie, from jaceo
Āfricam: African, from Africanus

79
Switzerland lies between Germany and Italy, Gaul between Spain and Germany, or between Italy and Britain.
80
Now look at the islands: you see many.
81
Corsica is near Sardinia, Sardinia near Corsica.
82
Around the islands you see water, but around Switzerland lands.
83
Where do the pupils sit? (inside.)
84
Where does the master stand? (outside.)
85
Where is the blackboard? (behind.)
86
Where do you see the map? (in front of.)
87
Where is Italy? (below.)
88
Where does Sicily lie? (above.)

Circum: around, about, from circos

89
Where does Gaul lie? (between.)
90
Where is Britain? (near.)
91
Where is the water? (around.)
92
Where does the pupil stand? (blackboard.)
93
Where is Malta? (Sicily.)
94
Where is Africa? (Europe.)
95
Between which peninsulas is Italy?
96
Near which island does Corsica lie?
97
Which lands do you see around Switzerland?

quam: than

Give the forms: mōnstrō, iaceō

98
show
99
lie

iaceō: lie

Give the forms: iaceō, cēnō

100
lie
101
dine

Give the forms: prandeō, lūdō

102
lunch
103
play

prandeō: lunch

Give the forms: lūdō, dormiō

104
play
105
sleep

Praepositiōnēs: Cāsus Accūsātīvus (Quō?) et Vocātīvus, prepositions with the accusative, where it goes, and the vocative

Into the room, toward the table

In cameram venit, ad mēnsam it means "he comes into the room, then goes to the table."

With movement, in marks entry into a place. Ad marks movement toward a place.

Both destinations take the accusative: cameram after in and mēnsam after ad.

Where the movement goes

Quō intrat asks where Marcus goes in. The answer is in cameram.

Quō it asks where Marcus goes. The answer is ad sellam.

Latin expresses a destination with ad or in and the accusative.

106
The master sits inside the room; Marcus, however, stands outside the room.
107
He knocks at the door, the master calls out: 'Come in!' Marcus opens the door, comes into the room, goes to the table, stands in front of the table; then, 'Good morning, master,' he says. The master answers: 'Good morning to you too, Marcus; shut the door, go to your chair, sit down!' Marcus shuts the door, walks around the room, goes to his chair, sits down.
108
Now the master says, 'Quintus and Titus, go to the windows!' They stand up and go to the windows and stand near the windows.
109
The master calls out: 'Open the windows!' They open the windows and go back to their chairs.
110
Where is Marcus? (room.)
111
Where does he go in? (room.)
112
Where does he stand? (table.)
113
Where does he walk? (room.)
114
Where does he go? (chair.)
115
Where do Quintus and Titus go? (windows.)

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XLVII, §§262-269

§262. We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following:

Galba ad (or in) oppidum properat
Galba ab (dē or ex) oppidō properat
Galba in oppidō habitat

From these expressions we may deduce the following rules:

autem: but, moreover
pulsat: beat, from pulso
clāmat: proclaim, declare, from clamo
Hūc: here, to this place
in: in, on
ad: to
it: go, from eo
tum: then, at that time
Salvē: hail, greetings
inquit: say, from inquam
claude: limping, lame, from claudus
ambulat: walk, take a walk, from ambulo
exclāmat: exclaim, shout, from exclamo
Quō: whither, where

116
Where do they stand? (windows.)
117
Where do they go back to? (chairs.)
118
Where do the Britons go? (Gaul.)
119
The pupils sit inside the room.
120
The master comes into the room.
121
My chair is near the table.
122
The pupil stands between the map and the blackboard.
123
The pupils go to the windows.
124
They go back to their chairs.

Britannī: Britain

II Dēclīnātiō, the second declension

One object ends in -um, several in -ōs

Hic vīgintī ferē discipulōs docet means "This master teaches about twenty pupils." The -ōs in discipulōs marks accusative plural.

Quālem tabellam, lūdum, stilum, campum habēs uses -um for each masculine accusative singular noun.

Masculine second-declension nouns use -um for singular objects and -ōs for plural objects.

Several subjects end in -ī

Puerī discunt et magistrī docent means "Boys learn and masters teach." The -ī in puerī and magistrī marks nominative plural.

Masculine second-declension nouns use -ī for plural subjects.

The forms of dominus show the three endings together: accusative singular -um, nominative plural -ī, and accusative plural -ōs.

Nouns in -er keep the endings

Puer and liber end in -er instead of -us in the nominative singular.

Their other forms keep the second-declension endings: puerī has plural -ī, and librōs has accusative plural -ōs.

Their masculine singular objects end in -um.

125
A school is a place where every day boys learn and masters teach: a school has many rooms, where pupils and masters work.
126
This master teaches about twenty pupils and every day corrects many sentences; they listen, recite, write; they have desks, tablets, pens; they also have many books, English, French, Latin: some books are blue, others red.
127
Around the room are four walls; this wall has the door, that one the windows, the third the blackboard, the fourth pictures.
128
Outside the school lies a wide field; you see the field through the window; it is the place where the boys play and run races with one another.
129
But a school is a place where they do not play but work.
130
Around the field is a high wall.
131
What are the pen, the school, the book, the wall, the water, the field like?
132
What are the pupils, the desks, the boys, the masters, the pages, the pictures like?
133
What sort of tablet, school, pen, field do you have?
134
What sort of books, walls, chairs do you have?

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson IX, §§70-76

§70. Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

§71. The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or O-Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um. The genitive singular ends in -ī.

§72. Gender. Nouns in -um are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.

§73. Declension of nouns in -us and -um. Masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows:

dominus (base domin-),    pīlum (base pīl-),
   m., master                  n., spear

               TERMINATIONS       TERMINATIONS
        SINGULAR
Nom.    do´minus[1]  -us       pīlum     -um
Gen.    dominī       -ī        pīlī      -ī
Dat.    dominō       -ō        pīlō      -ō
Acc.    dominum      -um       pīlum     -um
Abl.    dominō       -ō        pīlō      -ō
Voc.    domine       -e        pīlum     -um
[1] Compare the declension of domina and of dominus.

        PLURAL
Nom.    dominī       -ī        pīla      -a
Gen.    dominō´rum   -ōrum     pīlō´rum  -ōrum
Dat.    dominīs      -īs       pīlīs     -īs
Acc.    dominōs      -ōs       pīla      -a
Abl.    dominīs      -īs       pīlīs     -īs

a. Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural.

b. The vocative singular of words of the second declension in -us ends in -ĕ, as domine, O master; serve, O slave. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a.

§74. Write side by side the declension of domina, dominus, and pīlum. A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

a. The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

b. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in -a.

c. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in -m and the accusative plural in -s.

d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

e. Final -i and -o are always long; final -a is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

§75. Observe the sentences

Lesbia est bona,
  Lesbia is good
Lesbia est ancilla,
  Lesbia is a maidservant

We have learned (§55) that bona, when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a predicate adjective. Similarly a noun, as ancilla, used in the predicate to define the subject is called a predicate noun.

§76. RULE. Predicate Noun. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.

§91. Declension of Nouns in -er and -ir. In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in -os. This -os later became -us in words like servus, and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in -r, like puer, boy; ager, field; and vir, man. These words are therefore declined as follows:

§92. puer, m., boy    ager, m., field    vir, m., man
         BASE puer-         BASE agr-            BASE vir-

        SINGULAR                                    TERMINATIONS
Nom.    puer               ager                 vir      ----
Gen.    puerī              agrī                 virī     -ī
Dat.    puerō              agrō                 virō     -ō
Acc.    puerum             agrum                virum    -um
Abl.    puerō              agrō                 virō     -ō

        PLURAL
Nom.    puerī              agrī                 virī     -ī
Gen.    puerōrum           agrōrum              virōrum  -ōrum
Dat.    puerīs             agrīs                virīs    -īs
Acc.    puerōs             agrōs                virōs    -ōs
Abl.    puerīs             agrīs                virīs    -īs

a. The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§74.a).

b. The declension differs from that of servus only in the nominative and vocative singular.

c. Note that in puer the e remains all the way through, while in ager it is present only in the nominative. In puer the e belongs to the base, but in ager (base agr-) it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in -er are declined like ager. The genitive shows whether you are to follow puer or ager.

§93. Masculine adjectives in -er of the second declension are declined like nouns in -er. A few of them are declined like puer, but most of them like ager. The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus,

MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.
līber    lībera   līberum   (free)
   is like puer
pulcher  pulchra  pulchrum  (pretty)
   is like ager

For the full declension in the three genders, see §469.b. c.

§94. Decline together the words vir līber, terra lībera, frūmentum līberum, puer pulcher, puella pulchra, oppidum pulchrum

Lūdus: game, play
locus: place, spot
cottīdiē: daily, every day
puerī: boy, from puer
labōrant: labor, from laboro
vīgintī: twenty
corrigit: correct, set right, from corrigo
loculōs: spot, little, from loculus
tabellās: small board, from tabella
stilōs: iron pencil, style, from stilus
librōs: free, from liber
Latīnōs: Latin, from Latini
mūrī: wall, from murus
pīctūrās: painting, picture, from pictura
campus: field, plain
per: through
sē: of himself, from sui
currunt: run, from curro
altus: high, deep

135
How many masters teach you every day?
136
How many walls does your room have?
137
How many pens, books, fields, tablets do you have?
138
How many boys do you see around you?
139
Who works near you? Whom do you have near you?
140
Where are the walls?
141
What does a pupil do?
142
What is the place called where you work? the place where you sit? the place where you play?

Quōmodo: how, in what way

Give the forms: intrō, habeō

143
enter
144
have

Give the forms: habeō, corrigō

145
have
146
correct

Give the forms: eō, labōrō

147
go
148
work

Give the forms: labōrō, currō

149
work
150
run

Give the forms: clāmō

151
shout

Praepositiōnēs: Cāsus Ablātīvus (Unde?), prepositions with the ablative, where it comes from

From near a place

Mārcus ā sellā ad tabulam it means "Marcus goes from his chair to the blackboard."

In ā sellā, ā marks movement from near the chair, and sellā is ablative.

Out of a place

Sextus ex camerā exit means "Sextus goes out of the room."

Latin uses ā or ab with the ablative for movement from near a place, but ē or ex for movement out of it.

152
It is the third hour: the pupils come into the room, go to their chairs, sit down.
153
Now the master comes in too, and everyone rises from their chairs and calls out: 'Good morning, master!' He takes chalk from the table and writes sentences.
154
Then he sits down and says, 'Recite, all of you.' The pupils recite from the blackboard.
155
Then the master says, 'You, Marcus! go to the blackboard and wipe it!' Marcus goes from his chair to the blackboard, stands near the blackboard, wipes the blackboard; then goes back from the blackboard to his chair.
156
Quintus and Titus go from their chairs to the windows, open the windows, go back from the windows to their chairs.
157
The master says, 'Open your books!
158
You, Sextus, recite from the book.' But Sextus answers: 'I have no book here: it is outside the room.' The master says, 'Then go out of the room and fetch your book!' Sextus goes out of the room, fetches the book, comes back into the room, recites from the book.
159
Now everyone recites from their books.
160
One of the pupils, however, is a Gaul; he comes from Gaul and does not understand English: but he can recite the Latin sentences well.
161
After school the master goes away from the table and out of the room.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXX, §§177-181

§177. You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:[1]
[1] Synopses should be given not only in the first person, but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and plural.

          CONJUGATION I       CONJUGATION II
                     INDICATIVE
          ACTIVE   PASSIVE    ACTIVE    PASSIVE
Pres.     a´mō     a´mor      mo´neō    mo´neor
Imperf. amā´bam  amā´bar    monē´bam  monē´bar
Fut.      amā´bo   amā´bor    monē´bo   monē´bor

          CONJUGATION I          CONJUGATION II
                        IMPERATIVE
          ACTIVE    PASSIVE     ACTIVE     PASSIVE
Pres.     a´mā      amā´re      mo´nē      monē´re

                       INFINITIVE
Pres.     amā´re    amā´rī      monē´re    monē´rī

          CONJUGATION III        CONJUGATION III (-iō verbs)
                       INDICATIVE
          ACTIVE    PASSIVE     ACTIVE     PASSIVE
Pres.     re´gō     re´gor      ca´piō     ca´pior
Imperf. regē´bam  regē´bar    capiē´bam  capiē´bar
Fut.      re´gam    re´gar      ca´piam    ca´piar

                       IMPERATIVE
Pres.     re´ge     re´gere     ca´pe       ca´pere

                       INFINITIVE
Pres.     re´gere   re´gī       ca´pere     ca´pī

          CONJUGATION IV
            INDICATIVE
          ACTIVE     PASSIVE
Pres.     au´diō     au´dior
Imperf. audiē´bam  audiē´bar
Fut.      au´diam    au´diar

            IMPERATIVE
Pres.     au´dī      audī´re

            INFINITIVE
Pres.     audī´re    audī´rī

1. Give the synopsis of rapiō, mūniō, reperiō, doceō, videō, dīcō, agō, laudō, portō, and vary the person and number.

§178. We learned in §50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition from. This is sometimes called the separative ablative, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below.

§179. RULE. Ablative of the Place From. The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions ā or ab, dē, ē or ex.

Agricolae ex agrīs veniunt, the farmers come from the fields

a. ā or ab denotes from near a place; ē or ex, out from it; and dē, down from it. This may be represented graphically as follows:

               _________
              |         |
  ā or ab |         | ē or ex
/_____________|    ___________________\
\             |  Place  |             /
              |_________|
                   |
                   | dē
                   |
                   V

§180. RULE. Ablative of Separation. Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning.

a. If the separation is actual and literal of one material thing from another, the preposition ā or ab, ē or ex, or dē is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary.

(a) Perseus terram ā mōnstrīs līberat
  Perseus frees the land from monsters
    (literal separation--actual motion is expressed)
(b) Perseus terram trīstitiā līberat
  Perseus frees the land from sorrow
    (figurative separation--no actual motion is expressed)

§181. RULE. Ablative of the Personal Agent. The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition ā or ab.

a. In this construction the English translation of ā, ab is by rather than from. This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the person by whom the act was performed.

Mōnstrum ā Perseō necātur, the monster is being slain by (lit. from) Perseus

b. Note that the active form of the above sentence would be Perseus monstrum necat, Perseus is slaying the monster. In the passive the object of the active verb becomes the subject, and the subject of the active verb becomes the ablative of the personal agent, with ā or ab.

c. Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into English by the preposition by. (Cf. §100. b.) Means is a thing; the agent or actor is a person. The ablative of means has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has ā or ab. Compare

Fera sagittā necātur, the wild beast is killed by an arrow Fera ā Diānā necātur, the wild beast is killed by Diana

Sagittā, in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; ā Diānā, in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent.

ex: out of, from
ā: from, by
eam: this, that, from is
extergē: wipe, from extergo
redit: return, go back, from redeo
enim: for, in fact
pete: aim at, assail, from peto
exit: come, leave, from exeo
discipulīs: female pupil, from discipula
Gallus: a Gaul
Anglicam: old, aged, from Anglicus
Latīnās: Latin, from Latinae
potest: be able, can, from possum
abit: depart, go away, from abeo

162
Then the pupils leave their chairs, go out of the school, run across the field, return home.
163
From where do you rise? (chairs.)
164
From where does the master take the chalk? (table.)
165
From where do the pupils recite? (blackboard.)
166
Where does Marcus go? (blackboard.)
167
Where do Quintus and Titus go? (windows.)
168
From where do they go away? (windows.)
169
From where does Sextus recite? (book.)
170
Where does a Gaul come from? a German? a Spaniard? an Italian?
171
Where do you go when it is the third hour? (school.)
172
From where do the boys go out after school? (field.)
173
Where do they return to?

domum: house, home, from domus
Unde: from where
Germānus: German
Hispānus: Spanish, of Spain
Ītalus: Italian

Give the forms: camera, sella

174
room
175
seat

Give the forms: sella, discipulus

176
seat
177
pupil

Give the forms: stilus

178
pen