Prīmus et Secundus Annus, Lēctiōnēs 16–22

Praepositiōnēs: Cāsus Ablātīvus (Ubi?), prepositions with the ablative, where it is

Where the rooms are

In lūdis sunt multae camerae means "In the schools there are many rooms."

In lūdis names where the rooms are. Lūdis is ablative.

The ablative can name the place where something is or happens.

In takes the ablative

When in names where something is or happens, it takes the ablative.

In mediā aquā means "in the middle of the water." Aquā is ablative because the phrase names where the islands are seen.

1
In Britain there are many schools and playing fields; in school many boys work, they play in the field; so there are countless pupils in the whole of Britain.
Inin, on; into, to, against
BritanniāBritannia: Britain
suntsum: be; exist
multīmultus: much; many
lūdīludus: play; school
etand
campī;campus: field, plain
inin, on; into, to, against
lūdōludo: play
multīmultus: much; many
puerīpuer: boy
labōrant,laboro: labor; suffer, be hard pressed
lūduntludo: play, mock, tease, trick
inin, on; into, to, against
campō;campus: plain, field
innumerīinnumerus: innumerable, countless, numberless
igiturtherefore, then
discipulīdiscipulus: pupil, disciple
inin, on; into, to, against
tōtātotus: whole, all, entire, total, complete
BritanniāBritannia: Britain
sunt.sum: be; exist
2
In the schools there are many rooms, in the rooms many chairs, in the chairs the pupils sit.
3
In the room too there are four walls; in the first wall is the door, in the second the windows, in the third the blackboard, in the fourth pictures.
4
The master rises from his chair, takes chalk from the table, writes three sentences on the blackboard: the first at the top of the blackboard, the second in the middle, the third at the bottom.
5
There are many letters in a sentence, a great many on a page, in a whole book countless.
6
Now the master shows the map of Europe.
7
At the top of the map is Britain, where the Britons live; in the middle is Switzerland, at the bottom Sicily.
8
Greece is on the right, Spain on the left.
9
The Greeks live in Greece, the Spaniards in Spain.
10
In the middle of the water you see many islands.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson VI, §§48-56

§48. The Ablative Case. Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab´la-tive.

§49. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular ends in -ā and the ablative plural in -īs.

a. Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as,

Nom. fīliă
Abl. fīliā

b. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortūna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.

§50. The Ablative Relation. The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by from.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by with or by.

3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by in or at.

a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.

§51. Prepositions. While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

§52. RULE. Object of a Preposition. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.

§53. Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

ā[1] or ab, from, away from
dē, from, down from
ē[1] or ex, from, out from, out of
cum, with
in, in, on
[1] ā and ē are used only before words beginning with a consonant; ab and ex are used before either vowels or consonants.

1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

§54. Adjectives. Examine the sentence

Puella parva bonam deam amat,
  the little girl loves the good goddess

In this sentence parva (little) and bonam (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called adjectives,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.
[2] Pick out the adjectives in the following: “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of parva shows that it belongs to puella, and the ending of bonam that it belongs to deam. Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement. Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.

§55. Examine the sentences

Puella est parva,
  the girl is little
Puella parva bonam deam amat,
  the little girl loves the good goddess

In the first sentence the adjective parva is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a predicate adjective. In the second sentence the adjectives parva and bonam are closely attached to the nouns puella and deam respectively, and are called attributive adjectives.

a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc´ative (Latin vocāre, “to call”). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.

b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? Pugnatne nauta? you would say Pugnat, he is fighting, or Nōn pugnat, he is not fighting.

tōtā: whole, all, from totus
summā: highest, greatest, from summus
mediā: middle, middle part of, from medius
īmā: lowest, the bottom of, from īmus
permultae: very much, from permultus
habitant: dwell, abide, from habito
Graecī: the Greeks
Hispānī: Spain

11
Now the master stands in the middle of the room and turns towards the chairs.
12
The windows are on the right, the door on the left, the chairs in front, the blackboard behind.
13
He turns towards the door: where are the windows, the door, the chairs, the blackboard?
14
Where do you work?
15
Where do you play?
16
Where are the rooms?
17
Where are the chairs?
18
Where do you sit?
19
Where does the master sit?
20
Where do you see pictures?

vertit: turn, change, from verto
fronte: front, from frons
tergō: back, from tergum

21
Where do you write your exercise?
22
Where does the master write the first sentence? the second? the third?
23
Where are the pages?
24
The master turns towards the windows: where are the windows, the door, the chairs, the blackboard? Where does the master stand?
25
Where are Britain, Spain, Gaul, Germany, Africa, Greece?
26
Where are the islands?
27
Where do the Italians, the Swiss, the Germans, the Gauls live?

pēnsum: allotment for weaving, wool given
Helvētiī: the Helvetii

Concordia Adiectīvī, agreement of the adjective

Two adjectives match fluvius

Ister fluvius longus est et lātus means "The river Danube is long and wide."

Longus and lātus match fluvius in masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case.

Adjectives of the first and second declensions have masculine, feminine, and neuter forms. The forms of bonus give all three for every case and number.

The forms of bonus

Matching does not require matching endings

Incolae Rōmānī multōs agrōs habent means "The Roman inhabitants have many fields."

Incolae and Rōmānī are masculine, plural, and nominative, although their endings differ.

Adjectives match their nouns in gender, number, and case, not necessarily in ending.

28
On the map land and water appear.
29
On the land there are inhabitants: in Gaul the Gauls live, in Germany the Germans.
30
This water we call the ocean, but that a river.
31
On the ocean sailors work.
32
The river Danube is long and wide; the Po, a narrow, swift river, flows through Italy.
33
Near the Po are high hills; there are no fields on the hilltops, but many on the lower slopes.
34
Farmers till the fields.
35
A farmer is so called because he tills fields; for he does not till the hilltops or the woods, but the fields on the lower slopes and on the riverbank.
36
The Roman inhabitants have many fields and do not till their own fields: so farmers work in the fields on behalf of the Roman inhabitants.
37
Sailors do not work on land, but on the ocean.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson VIII, §§64-68

§64. We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in case and in number (§54). They agree also in gender. In the phrase silva magna, we have a feminine adjective in -a agreeing with a feminine noun in -a.

§65. RULE. Agreement of Adjectives. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

§66. Feminine adjectives in -a are declined like feminine nouns in -a, and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

        NOUN               ADJECTIVE
domina (base domin-),  bona (base bon-),
   f., lady                  good

        SINGULAR                TERMINATIONS
Nom.    do´mina             bona        -a
Gen.    dominae             bonae       -ae
Dat.    dominae             bonae       -ae
Acc.    dominam             bonam       -am
Abl.    dominā              bonā        -ā

        PLURAL
Nom.    dominae             bonae       -ae
Gen.    dominā´rum          bonā´rum    -ārum
Dat.    dominīs             bonīs       -īs
Acc.    dominās             bonās       -ās
Abl.    dominīs             bonīs       -īs

a. In the same way decline together puella mala, the bad girl; ancil´la parva, the little maid; fortū´na magna, great fortune.

§67. The words dea, goddess, and fīlia, daughter, take the ending -ābus instead of -īs in the dative and ablative plural. Note the dative and ablative plural in the following declension:

dea bona (bases de- bon-)

        SINGULAR      PLURAL
Nom.    dea bona      deae bonae
Gen.    deae bonae    deā´rum bonā´rum
Dat.    deae bonae    deā´bus bonīs
Acc.    deam bonam    deās bonās
Abl.    deā bonā      dea´bus bonīs

a. In the same way decline together fīlīa parva.

§68. Latin Word Order. The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on my, daughter, dinner, farmers.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its ending (cf. §32.1), and not by its position, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

I saw a game of football at Chicago last November (normal order) Last November I saw a game of football at Chicago At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of football

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the first; next in importance is the last; the weakest point is the middle. Generally the subject is the most important word, and is placed first; usually the verb is the next in importance, and is placed last. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows:

subject--modifiers of the subject--indirect object--direct object--adverb--verb

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin.

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as

fīlia mea, my daughter;
mea fīlia, my daughter;
casa Galbae, Galba’s cottage;
Galbae casa, Galba’s cottage.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways:

Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat (normal order)
Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam (mea and cēnam emphatic)
Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat (agricolīs emphatic)

3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words.

Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat (parvam not emphatic) Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat (parvam more emphatic) Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat (parvam very emphatic)

4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

5. The copula (as est, sunt) is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well.

§83. Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows:

        MASCULINE  FEMININE   NEUTER
        SINGULAR
Nom.    bonus      bona       bonum
Gen.    bonī       bonae      bonī
Dat.    bonō       bonae      bonō
Acc.    bonum      bonam      bonum
Abl.    bonō       bonā       bonō
Voc.    bone       bona       bonum

      PLURAL
Nom.    bonī       bonae      bona
Gen.    bonōrum    bonārum    bonōrum
Dat.    bonīs      bonīs      bonīs
Acc.    bonōs      bonās      bona
Abl.    bonīs      bonīs      bonīs

a. Write the declension and give it orally across the page, thus giving the three genders for each case.

b. Decline grātus, -a, -um; malus, -a, -um; altus, -a, -um; parvus, -a, -um.

§84. Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does not mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, nauta, sailor, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective bonus is of the second declension. Consequently, a good sailor is nauta bonus. So, the wicked farmer is agricola malus. Learn the following declensions:

§85. nauta bonus (bases naut- bon-), m., the good sailor

        SINGULAR
Nom.    nauta     bonus
Gen.    nautae    bonī
Dat.    nautae    bonō
Acc.    nautam    bonum
Abl.    nautā     bonō
Voc.    nauta     bone

        PLURAL
Nom.    nautae    bonī
Gen.    nautārum  bonōrum
Dat.    nautīs    bonīs
Acc.    nautās    bonōs
Abl.    nautīs    bonīs
Voc.    nautae    bonī

appārent: prepare, fit out, from appareo
incolae—in: inhabitant, from incola
ōceanum: the Ocean
fluvium: river, from fluvius
nautae: sailor, from nauta
angustus: narrow, steep
rapidus: rapid, swift
fluit: flow, from fluo
clīvī: slope, incline, from clivus
agrī: field, from ager
clīvīs: slope, incline, from cliva
Agricolae: farmer, from agricola
colunt: strain, clarify, from colo
quia: because
silvās: wood, forest, from silva
rīpā: bank
prō: before

38
British sailors fight on the ocean for their native land Britain and for the British people.
39
If water is around the land, what is it called?
40
If it flows through the land, what is it called?
41
What does a farmer till? where does he work?
42
What sort of river is the Po? where does it flow?
43
Where are the fields?
44
Who tills the fields?
45
Which sailors fight on the ocean?
46
Which inhabitants live in Gaul, in Italy, in Spain?
47
Where does the river Po flow to? and from where?

pūgnant: fight, from pugno
Sī: if

48
What do you see on the banks?
49
In whose room do you work?
50
For whom do the Roman sailors fight?

Genus Neutrum, the neuter gender

The same neuter singular form

Bracchium sinistrum scūtum oblongum tenet means the left arm holds an oblong shield.

Bracchium is nominative as the subject. Scūtum is accusative as the direct object.

Both are neuter singular forms ending in -um. A neuter noun has the same form in the nominative and accusative.

The same neuter plural form

In castrīs sunt multa tabernācula means there are many tents in the camp. Tabernācula is nominative as the subject.

Arma et tēla vidēmus means the speakers see armour and weapons. Arma and tēla are accusative as direct objects.

These neuter plural forms all end in -a. The same -a form serves as nominative or accusative.

51
A Roman camp is square.
52
The Romans build a rampart around the camp; outside the rampart they dig the earth and so make a ditch.
53
In the camp there are many tents; if we go into a tent, we see armour and weapons.
54
The armour is helmet and shield and breastplate.
55
The weapons are spear and sword and javelin.
56
The Roman throws the sharp javelin, thrusts the long spear.
57
When he wants to fight, he draws his sword from its sheath.
58
Look! in the picture the Roman wears a sword; the sword hangs on the right, not the left.
59
The left arm holds an oblong shield; the Gaul, however, carries not a shield but a round buckler.
60
If a British boy wants to fight, he has neither weapons nor armour, but fists.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson IX, §§70-76

§70. Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

§71. The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or O-Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um. The genitive singular ends in -ī.

§72. Gender. Nouns in -um are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.

§73. Declension of nouns in -us and -um. Masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows:

dominus (base domin-),    pīlum (base pīl-),
   m., master                  n., spear

               TERMINATIONS       TERMINATIONS
        SINGULAR
Nom.    do´minus[1]  -us       pīlum     -um
Gen.    dominī       -ī        pīlī      -ī
Dat.    dominō       -ō        pīlō      -ō
Acc.    dominum      -um       pīlum     -um
Abl.    dominō       -ō        pīlō      -ō
Voc.    domine       -e        pīlum     -um
[1] Compare the declension of domina and of dominus.

        PLURAL
Nom.    dominī       -ī        pīla      -a
Gen.    dominō´rum   -ōrum     pīlō´rum  -ōrum
Dat.    dominīs      -īs       pīlīs     -īs
Acc.    dominōs      -ōs       pīla      -a
Abl.    dominīs      -īs       pīlīs     -īs

a. Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural.

b. The vocative singular of words of the second declension in -us ends in -ĕ, as domine, O master; serve, O slave. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a.

§74. Write side by side the declension of domina, dominus, and pīlum. A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

a. The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

b. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in -a.

c. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in -m and the accusative plural in -s.

d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

e. Final -i and -o are always long; final -a is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

§75. Observe the sentences

Lesbia est bona,
  Lesbia is good
Lesbia est ancilla,
  Lesbia is a maidservant

We have learned (§55) that bona, when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a predicate adjective. Similarly a noun, as ancilla, used in the predicate to define the subject is called a predicate noun.

§76. RULE. Predicate Noun. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.

Castra: fort, from castrum
vāllum: earth-works, rampart
aedificant: build, erect, from aedifico
fodiunt: dig, dig out, from fodio
fossam: ditch, from fossa
tabernācula: tent, from tabernaculum
arma: arms
tēla: weapon of offense, spear, from telum
galea: helmet
scūtum: shield
lōrīca: coat of mail, corselet
hasta: spear
gladius: sword
iaculum: javelin, from jaculum
iacit: throw, hurl, from jacio
trūdit: thrust, push, from trudo
vult: will, be willing, from volo
vāgīnā: sheath, scabbard
stringit: draw tight, from stringo
gerit: bear, carry on, from gero
pendet: weigh out, from pendeo
Bracchium: forearm, arm
oblongum: oblong, from oblongus
clipeum: round
pūgnōs: battle, fight, from pugnus

61
Fist and arm are limbs; other parts of the body are the neck, the back, the nose, the eyes.
62
How many necks, arms, eyes, noses, backs do you have?
63
Where are the shield, the sword, the tents, the rampart, the ditch?
64
What is armour? what are weapons?
65
What is the shield like? what is the buckler like?
66
Which arm carries the buckler?
67
What does the Roman draw? What does he thrust? What does he throw?
68
What do you call many tents in one field?
69
Which camp is square, the Gallic or the Roman?

membra: member, limb, from membrum
collum: neck
nāsus: nose
oculī: eye, from oculus
clipeus: round

Give the forms: pendeō, iaciō

70
hang
71
throw

iaciō: throw

Give the forms: iaciō, trūdō

72
throw
73
push

Give the forms: pūgnō, redeō

74
fight
75
go back

Ablātīvus Īnstrūmentī, the ablative of the instrument

The instrument stands in the ablative

Scūtīs enim sē dēfendunt means "For they defend themselves with shields."

Scūtīs names the shields used for defending. Tēlīs, hastā, gladiō, and iaculō name the weapons used for attacking.

No preposition introduces the instrument

The ablative without a preposition names the means or instrument used to perform an action.

Stilō means "with a pen", and crētā means "with chalk".

Stilō and crētā name the instruments. In pāginā and in tabulā name the places.

Quō īnstrumentō asks which instrument is used. The answer names it in the ablative without cum.

76
The Romans, when they want to fight, carry armour and weapons.
77
For they defend themselves with shields; but with weapons (spear, sword, javelin) they attack others.
78
The Gaul defends himself not with a shield but with a round buckler.
79
A British boy fights not with weapons and armour but with his fists; with the left fist he attacks, with the right he defends himself; sometimes he can attack with the right too.
80
With our limbs we can do many things: for with our eyes we see, with our tongue we recite, with our arms we throw a ball, with the right hand we hold a pen or chalk when we want to write; with a pen we write on a page, with chalk on the blackboard.
81
With what instrument do you write on the blackboard? On a page?
82
With what armour does the Roman defend himself? the Gaul?
83
With what part of the body do you write? recite? throw a ball?
84
With what parts of the body do you see? fight?
85
With which fist do you defend yourself? attack another boy?

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XV, §§100-106

§100. Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition with. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by cum. This will become clear from the following sentences:

a. Mark is feeble with (for or because of) want of food
b. Diana kills the beasts with (or by) her arrows
c. Julia is with Sextus
d. The men fight with great steadiness

a. In sentence a, with want (of food) gives the cause of Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of cause:

Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī

b. In sentence b, with (or by) her arrows tells by means of what Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the ablative of means:

Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat

c. In sentence c we are told that Julia is not alone, but in company with Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition cum, and the construction is called the ablative of accompaniment:

Iūlia est cum Sextō

d. In sentence d we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of manner. This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with cum, unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case cum may be omitted. This construction is called the ablative of manner:

Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant

§101. You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting with:

§102. RULE. Ablative of Cause. Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?

§103. RULE. Ablative of Means. Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?

N.B. Cum must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means.

§104. RULE. Ablative of Accompaniment. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with cum. This answers the question With whom?

§105. RULE. Ablative of Manner. The ablative with cum is used to denote the manner of an action. Cum may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?

§106. What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (or by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.

dēfendunt: defend, from defendo
oppūgnant: storm, assail, from oppugno
pūgnīs: battle, from pugna
nōnnunquam: sometimes, from nonnumquam
īnstrumentō: tool, tools, from instrumentum

86
With which arm does the Roman hold his shield?
87
With what weapons does the Roman attack?
88
Can you write with your left hand?

Potesne: able, capable

Give the forms: volō

89
want

Īnfīnītīvus. Cāsus Accūsātīvus (Quamdiū? Quam longē?), the infinitive, and the accusative of how long and how far

What the boy begins

iam Graecam linguam intellegere incipit means he is already beginning to understand Greek.

Incipit gives the beginning. Intellegere completes incipit. Both verbs have the boy as their subject.

One subject for both verbs

Suam linguam bene dīcere potest means he can speak his own language well.

Potest gives the ability. Dīcere completes potest. The boy remains the subject of both verbs.

Latin completes verbs of beginning or ability with an infinitive. The infinitive shares the main verb's subject.

90
Far from Rome live a farmer and his son Titus.
91
He goes to school every day: for he is a good boy and is already beginning to understand Greek.
92
He can speak his own language well, because the masters can teach well.
93
Now he is thirteen years old and wants to go to Rome.
94
And so the farmer takes him to Rome.
95
Because Rome is far away from the fields, they cannot walk: so horses carry them.
96
When they come to the Latin Gate, they get down from the horses, because the streets inside the wall are rough and narrow.
97
Then they stay six hours in Rome; for two hours they go through all the streets and look at the ancient buildings; for many of the temples were built four hundred years ago.
98
Then they visit a friend and have lunch at his house.
99
After lunch the boy wants to see the shows; so they go to the Circus Maximus, and watch the shows for three hours.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXVII, §§212-216

§212. Learn the principal parts of possum, I am able, I can, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.)

a. Possum, I can, is a compound of potis, able, and sum, I am.

§213. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative. The infinitive (cf. §173) is a verbal noun. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, Is virōs fugere iussit, he commanded the men to flee.

§214. RULE. Subject of the Infinitive. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.

§215. The Complementary Infinitive. In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls. This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are possum, I am able, I can; properō, mātūrō, I hasten; temptō, I attempt; as

Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt,
  the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls
Bellum gerere mātūrant,
  they hasten to wage war

a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.

Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt, bad boys are not able to (or cannot) be good.

Observe that bonī agrees with puerī.

§216. The Infinitive used as a Noun. In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with est, as

Superāre est grātum, to conquer is pleasing
Vidēre est crēdere, to see is to believe

a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as

Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs,
  for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many

b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence superāre est grātum, the predicate adjective grātum is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with superāre the subject.

§333. Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§478). The ordinals are all declined like bonus.

§334. The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of bonus. The first three are

singulī, -ae, -a, one each, one by one
bīnī, -ae, -a, two each, two by two
ternī, -ae, -a, three each, three by three

§335. We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as per plūrimōs annōs, for a great many years; per tōtum diem, for a whole day. Here the space relation is one of extent of time. We could also say per decem pedēs, for ten feet, where the space relation is one of extent of space. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as,

Vir tōtum diem cucurrit, the man ran for a whole day Caesar mūrum decem pedēs mōvit, Cæsar moved the wall ten feet

§336. RULE. Accusative of Extent. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative.

a. This accusative answers the questions how long? how far?

b. Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time how long and the ablative of time when, or within which.

Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following:

When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o’clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king’s death.

Procul: far, afar off
fīlius: son
bonus: good, kind
iam: already, now, from jam
Graecam: Greek, from Graece
incipit: begin, from incipio
tredecim: thirteen
annōs: year, from annus
nātus: born, arisen
Itaque: and so, therefore
dūcit: lead, conduct, from duco
ab: from, by
abest: be away, be absent, from absum
equī: horse, from equus
vehunt: bear, carry, from veho
portam: gate, from porta
dēscendunt: descend, climb, from descendo
viae: way, road, from via
inīquae: unjust, unfair, from iniquus
manent: remain, from maneo
antīqua: old, ancient, from antiquus
aedificia: building, dwelling, from aedificium
templīs: temple, shrine, from templum
quadringentōs: square, from quadringenti
amīcum: friend, from amicus
vīsunt: visit, go to see, from viso
apud: among
prandium: luncheon
spectācula: show, spectacle, from spectaculum

100
At last they fetch the horses near the Latin Gate and return home.
101
How old are you?
102
How many hours a day do you learn Latin, French, mathematics?
103
How long do you play in the field?
104
How many hours a day do you work?
105
How many hours does a farmer work?
106
In our room, how many paces is the window from the door?
107
In your room, how many paces is the table from the window?
108
How long do you sleep?
109
How many years ago was our school built?

Tandem: at length, finally
Quamdiū: for how long?
passūs: a pace

Nōmina et Adiectīva, nouns and adjectives

Capitōlium and templum match

Ibi Capitōlium vidētis, templum, ubi māgnus deus habitat means "There you see the Capitol, the temple where the great god dwells."

Capitōlium is the direct object of vidētis and takes the accusative case. Its appositive templum is accusative too.

An appositive matches the case

Via Sacra praeter forum ad Capitōlium, templum sacrum, dūcit means "The Sacred Way leads past the forum to the Capitol, the sacred temple."

After ad, Capitōlium is accusative. Its appositive templum matches its case.

A noun in apposition agrees in case with the noun it explains.

110
Rome stands on seven hills.
111
There you see the Capitol, the temple where the great god dwells.
112
We have one God; but the Romans have many gods; so there are many temples in the great city; for the gods each have their own temple.
113
In front of the temple stand tall columns; these hold up the roof.
114
Near the temple are many buildings, some small, some large.
115
A strong wall surrounds the whole city and in this wall are many gates.
116
Roads lead out of the city through the gates.
117
The Latin Way leads through the Latin Gate into Latium; the Sacred Way leads past the forum to the Capitol, the sacred temple.
118
The forum is in the middle of the city.
119
Outside the city the roads are wide and level; but inside the wall narrow and rough.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson X, §§79-81

§79. We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like bona, in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. Masculine adjectives of this class are declined like dominus, and neuters like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows:

MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE         NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
dominus bonus, the good master     pīlum bonum, the good spear
  BASES domin- bon-                    BASES pīl- bon-

                        TERMINATIONS               TERMINATIONS
        SINGULAR
Nom.    do´minus bonus       -us      pīlum bonum        -um
Gen.    dominī bonī          -ī       pīlī bonī         -ī
Dat.    dominō bonō          -ō       pīlō bonō         -ō
Acc.    dominum bonum        -um      pīlum bonum       -um
Abl.    dominō bonō          -ō       pīlō bonō         -ō
Voc.    domine bone          -e       pīlum bonum       -um

        PLURAL
Nom.    dominī bonī          -ī      pīla bona          -a
Gen.    dominō´rum bonō´rum  -ōrum    īlō´rum bonō´rum  -ōrum
Dat.    dominīs bonīs        -is      īlīs bonīs        -īs
Acc.    dominōs bonōs        -ōs     pīla bona          -a
Abl.    dominīs bonīs        -īs      īlīs bonīs        -īs

Decline together bellum longum, equus parvus, servus malus, mūrus altus, frūmentum novum.

§80. Observe the sentences

Lesbia ancilla est bona,
  Lesbia, the maidservant, is good
Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona,
  the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good
Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat,
  the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant

In these sentences ancilla, ancillae, and ancillam denote the class of persons to which Lesbia belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case.

§81. RULE. Apposition. An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains.

Ibi: there, in that place
Capitōlium: the Capitol
deus: god
oppidō: town, from oppidum
quisque: each, each one
columnae: column, pillar, from columna
tēctum: roof
sustinent: sustain, from sustineo
validus: strong, able
cingit: surround, from cingo
Latīna: Latin, from Latinum
Latium: Latin, from Latius
Sacra: something consecrated, sacrifice, from sacrum
praeter: beyond, contrary to
forum: market place
aequae: even, level, from aequus

120
The fields are wide and open.
121
In the Campus Martius men and boys play and exercise.
122
Here stands the Circus Maximus; there the Romans see great shows; there horses race and men fight.
123
These shows the Romans call games.
124
Where does Rome stand?
125
Where do the gods dwell?
126
How many gods do we have?
127
Which road leads to the Capitol?
128
What do the columns hold up? What are they like?
129
What holds up the roof?

Mārtiō: of Mars, from Martius
virī: man, hero, from vir
exercent: practice, drill, from exerceo
Circus: race course

130
What surrounds the city?
131
What does the wall surround?
132
Where does the Latin Way lead?
133
Where do the men exercise? Who else does this there?
134
Write the opposite: level, narrow, I play, I go out, I go away, field, ploughland.

Give the forms: dūcō, cingō

135
lead, command
136
surround

Give the forms: cingō

137
surround

Cāsus Genetīvus. Adverbium, the genitive case, and the adverb

Adverbs and actions

Lentē ad lūdum ambulat means "he walks slowly to school."

Lentē is the adverb with ambulat and states how Brutus walks.

In the same line, male goes with facit, cito with currit, and bene with facere.

Many adverbs end in -ē

Stultē semper omnia facis neque unquam studiōsē labōrās means "you always do everything stupidly and never work hard."

Many adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions add -ē to the adjective's base.

Lentē and studiōsē carry this ending.

The first column shows cārus becoming cārē, pulcher becoming pulchrē, and līber becoming līberē.

From the book

138
The room.
139
Brutus is a bad pupil; he does his exercise badly; he walks slowly to school and often arrives late, but runs home quickly; he can do nothing well.
140
In school he either plays in a friendly way with the pupil next to him or fights in an unfriendly one.
141
Today our Brutus is sleeping peacefully in Sextus's chair, when suddenly Sextus comes into the room and calls out: 'Look, master!
142
Brutus is in my chair.' The master says, 'Brutus! get yourself out of Sextus's chair and sit down in your own at once!
143
Now recite!' Brutus slowly removes himself, but says, 'I have no book here.' The master answers: 'Recite from Murena's book!' So Brutus takes Murena's book and begins to recite from his book.
144
But he recites badly, and the master calls out: 'You idle pupil, you always do everything stupidly and never work hard.
145
Don't be so idle.
146
The other pupils of this school always have their own books, but you never have yours.
147
Take an example from them!

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson IV, §§35-38

§35. We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

Fīlia agricolae nautam amat,
  the farmer’s daughter (or the daughter of the farmer)
  loves the sailor

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?

§36. RULE. Nominative Subject. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?

§37. RULE. Accusative Object. The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?

§38. RULE. Genitive of the Possessor. The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?

§319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.

§320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

        POSITIVE                COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    cārus, dear             cārior       cārissimus
Adv.    cārē, dearly            cārius       cārissimē

Adj.    pulcher, beautiful      pulchrior    pulcherrimus
Adv.    pulchrē, beautifully    pulchrius    pulcherrimē

Adj.    līber, free             līberior     līberrimus
Adv.    līberē, freely          līberius     līberrimē

a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -ē to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.

§321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;[1] as,
[1] This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.

        POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    fortis, brave         fortior      fortissimus
Adv.    fortiter, bravely     fortius      fortissimē

Adj.    audāx, bold           audācior     audācissimus
Adv.    audācter, boldly      audācius     audācissimē

§322. Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

Adj.    facilis, easy               prīmus, first
Adv.    facile (acc.), easily       prīmum (acc.), first
                                    prīmō (abl.), at first
Adj.    multus, many                plūrimus, most
Adv.    multum (acc.), much         plūrimum (acc.), most
        multō (abl.), by much

§323. Learn the following irregular comparisons:

bene, well             melius, better      optimē, best
diū, long (time)     diūtius, longer     diūtissimē, longest
magnopere, greatly     magis, more         maximē, most
parum, little          minus, less         minimē, least
prope, nearly, near    propius, nearer     proximē, nearest
saepe, often           saepius, oftener    saepissimē, oftenest

§324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: laetus, superbus, molestus, amīcus, ācer, brevis, gravis, recēns.

§325. RULE. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

§327. The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows:

1. Cardinal Numerals, answering the question how many? as, ūnus, one; duo, two; etc.

2. Ordinal Numerals, derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question in what order? as, prīmus, first; secundus, second; etc.

3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singulī, one at a time.

§328. The Cardinal Numerals. The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows:

1, ūnus         6, sex        11, ūndecim          16, sēdecim
2, duo          7, septem     12, duodecim         17, septendecim
3, trēs         8, octō       13, tredecim         18, duodēvīgintī
4, quattuor     9, novem      14, quattuordecim    19, ūndēvīgintī
5, quīnque     10, decem      15, quīndecim        20, vīgintī

a. Learn also centum = 100, ducentī = 200, mīlle = 1000.

§329. Declension of the Cardinals. Of the cardinals only ūnus, duo, trēs, the hundreds above one hundred, and mīlle used as a noun, are declinable.

a. ūnus is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like nūllus (cf. §§109, 470). The plural of ūnus is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, ūna castra, one camp; and with other nouns in the sense of only, as, Gallī ūnī, only the Gauls.

b. Learn the declension of duo, two; trēs, three; and mīlle, a thousand. (§479.)

c. The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of bonus; as,

ducentī,    -ae,   -a
ducentōrum, -ārum, -ōrum
  etc.        etc.   etc.

§330. We have already become familiar with sentences like the following:

Omnium avium aquila est vēlōcissima
  Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest
Hoc ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum
  This oracle was the most famous of all

In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a partitive genitive.

§331. RULE. Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the partitive genitive.

a. Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting mīlle regularly take the ablative with ex or dē instead of the partitive genitive.

b. Mīlle, a thousand, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, mīlle mīlitēs, a thousand soldiers), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, decem mīlia mīlitum, ten thousand soldiers).

EXAMPLES:

Fortissimī hōrum sunt Germānī
  The bravest of these are the Germans
Decem mīlia hostium interfecta sunt
  Ten thousand (lit. thousands) of the enemy were slain
Ūna ex captīvīs erat soror rēgis
  One of the captives was the king’s sister

malus: bad
lentē: bend under strain, from lenteo
saepe: often
sērō: late, at a late hour
cito: quickly, with speed
nihil: nothing
propinquō: near, neighboring, from propinquus
Hodiē: to-day
subitō: suddenly
removē: move back, from removeo
statim: immediately, at once
Mūrēnae: kind of eel, the moray, from Murena
capit: take, seize, from capio
īgnāvē: lazy, from ignavus
semper: always
unquam: ever, at any time, from umquam
Nōlī: not to wish, be unwilling, from nolo
tam: so
nunquam: never, from numquam
Exemplum: example, model

148
You are always sitting in their chairs, you want to have their books.
149
Come to me!' Poor Brutus!
150
While he timidly gets up and slowly approaches the master's table, his enemies gladly watch the spectacle.
151
'Hurry up!' says the master, and takes up the cane.
152
If a river is slow, how does it flow?
153
If the ocean is calm, how does the sailor cross the ocean?
154
If you come to school late, how do you walk?
155
How do hard-working boys work?
156
How do you play with a friend?
157
How do you fight against an enemy?

miserum: wretched, unfortunate, from miser
appropinquat: approach, from appropinquo
inimīcī: hostile, from inimicus
laetī: happy, glad, from laetus
Properā: quick, speedy, from properus
ferulam: stick, rod, from ferula
lentus: clinging, tough
Ōceanus: Ocean
tranquillus: quiet, calm
trānsit: go over, cross, from transeo
studiōsī: eager, keen, from studiosus
contrā: against, contrary to

158
What sort of boy works idly?
159
What sort of boy does everything badly?
160
What sort of farmers till their fields well?
161
How do you watch the games?
162
Whose is this room?
163
Whose is this school?
164
Whose is this field?
165
Whose native land is Britain? Gaul? Germany?
166
Whose book do you have?
167
In whose chair are you sitting?

168
From whose book are you reciting?
169
With whose pen are you writing now?
170
Whose chair is in front of your chair?
171
Whose chair is behind yours?
172
Whose chair is near yours?
173
Whose chairs do you see around yours?
174
In whose chair is Brutus sleeping?
175
In whose chairs are the other boys sitting?
176
From whose book does Brutus recite?
177
From whose books do the other boys recite?
178
Whose books do the good boys have?
179
Whose table does Brutus approach?