Prīmus et Secundus Annus, Lēctiōnēs 30–36

III Dēclīnātiō, the third declension

Soldiers in two cases

Multōs mīlitēs in bellō dūcēbat means "He led many soldiers in war." Dux erat multōrum mīlitum means "He was the leader of many soldiers."

The genitive marks an owner or possessor. mīlitēs is accusative plural, while mīlitum is genitive plural.

mīles adds -s

mīles adds -s to its base in the nominative singular. Before -s, the final -t drops and the base vowel changes.

The genitive singular mīlitis reveals the base mīlit- when -is is removed.

The forms of mīles show mīlit- with the masculine and feminine endings outside the nominative singular.

mīlit-

māter adds no ending

Quattuor omnēs Scīpiōnem patrem, Semprōniam mātrem vocant means "All four call Scipio father, Sempronia mother."

māter adds no ending in the nominative singular. Its accusative singular mātrem has -em, the same ending as mīlitem.

Masculine and feminine consonant stems take the same endings outside the nominative singular, whether the nominative adds -s or no ending.

1
Gaius Cornelius Scipio lives in this villa.
GāiusGaius: Caius
CornēliusCornelius: Cornelius
ScīpiōScipio: Scipio
inin, on; into, to, against
hāchic: this
vīllāvilla: farm, villa
habitat.habito: dwell, abide, inhabit
2
Cornelius's wife is Sempronia.
3
They have two sons and two daughters.
4
The two sons' names are Marcus and Titus; the latter is two years old, the former twelve.
5
Both daughters, the Corneliae, have their father's name.
6
The sons are the brothers of the Corneliae; these are the sisters of Marcus and Titus.
7
All four call Scipio father, Sempronia mother.
8
Cornelius has often fought against barbarians; he was a soldier.
9
He led many soldiers in war; he was the leader of many soldiers.
10
At this time, however, the Romans are at peace.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXIX, §§230-233

§230. Bases and Stems. In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the base. If to the base we add -ā in the first declension, and -o in the second, we get what is called the stem. Thus porta has the base port- and the stem portā-; servus has the base serv- and the stem servo-.

These stem vowels, -ā- and -o-, play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the Ā- and O-Declensions.

§231. Nouns of the Third Declension. The third declension is called the Consonant or I-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the stem ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a consonant stem; if the stem ends in -i-, the word is said to have an i-stem. In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In i-stems the stem is formed by adding -i- to the base. The presence of the i makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.

§232. Consonant stems are divided into two classes:

I. Stems that add -s to the base to form the nominative singular. II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.

CLASS I

§233. Stems that add -s to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows:

          prīnceps,   mīles, m.,  lapis,
          m., chief     soldier       m., stone
BASES OR
STEMS     prīncip-      mīlit-        lapid-

          SINGULAR                               TERMINATIONS
                                                 M. AND F.
Nom.      prīnceps      mīles         lapis      -s
Gen.      prīn´cipis    mīlitis       lapidis    -is
Dat.      prīn´cipī     mīlitī        lapidī     -ī
Acc.      prīn´cipem    mīlitem       lapidem    -em
Abl.      prīn´cipe     mīlite        lapide     -e

          PLURAL
Nom.      prīn´cipēs    mīlitēs       lapidēs    -ēs
Gen.      prīn´cipum    mīlitum       lapidum    -um
Dat.      prīnci´pibus  mīlitibus     lapidibus  -ibus
Acc.      prīn´cipēs    mīlitēs       lapidēs    -ēs
Abl.      prīnci´pibus  mīlitibus     lapidibus  -ibus

          rēx,      iūdex,     virtūs, f.,
          m., king    m.,judge     manliness
BASES OR
STEMS     rēg-        iūdic-       virtūt-

          SINGULAR                              TERMINATIONS
          M. AND F.
Nom.      rēx         iūdex        virtūs       -s
Gen.      rēgis       iūdicis      virtū´tis    -is
Dat.      rēgī        iūdicī       virtū´tī     -ī
Acc.      rēgem       iūdicem      virtū´tem    -em
Abl.      rēge        iūdice       virtū´te     -e

          PLURAL
Nom.      rēgēs       iūdicēs      virtū´tēs    -ēs
Gen.      rēgum       iūdicum      virtū´tum    -um
Dat.      rēgibus     iūdicibus    virtū´tibus  -ibus
Acc.      rēgēs       iūdicēs      virtū´tēs    -ēs
Abl.      rēgibus     iūdicibus    virtū´tibus  -ibus

1. The base or stem is found by dropping -is in the genitive singular.

2. Most nouns of two syllables, like prīnceps (prīncip-), mīles (mīlit-), iūdex (iūdic-), have i in the base, but e in the nominative.

a. lapis is an exception to this rule.

3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative:

a. A final -t or -d is dropped before -s; thus mīles for mīlets, lapis for lapids, virtūs for virtūts.

b. A final -c or -g unites with -s and forms -x; thus iūdec + s = iūdex, rēg + s = rēx.

4. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension.

In like manner decline dux, ducis, m., leader; eques, equitis, m., horseman; pedes, peditis, m., foot soldier; pēs, pedis, m.,foot.

§235. Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add -s. They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

§236. PARADIGMS

MASCULINES AND FEMININES

cōnsul, legiō, f., ōrdō, pater, m.,
m., consul legion m., row father
BASES OR
STEMS cōnsul- legiōn- ōrdin- patr-

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
Nom. cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater --
Gen. cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is
Dat. cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī
Acc. cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em
Abl. cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e

PLURAL
Nom. cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs
Gen. cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um
Dat. cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus
Acc. cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs
Abl. cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus

1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way.

2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ōn- drop -n- and end in -ō in the nominative, as legiō (base or stem legiōn-), ōrdō (base or stem ōrdin-).

3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-).

4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. Always learn this with the nominative.

vīllā: farm, villa
Uxor: wife
Semprōnia: Sempronian, from Sempronius
fīliās: daughter, from filia
nōmina: name, from nomen
patris: father, from pater
frātrēs: brother, from frater
sorōrēs: sister, from soror
mātrem: mother, from mater
mīles: soldier
bellō: war, from bellum
dux: leader

11
So Cornelius stays at home with his family.
12
Marcus too, when he is no longer a boy, will wear a shining helmet on his head as a soldier; he will be the leader of a Roman legion.
13
He has already trained a great deal; so he has a strong body; when he is a man, he will be able to fight well.
14
He has already run a great deal; so he has strong legs and strong feet: he will lead the Roman soldiers swiftly against the barbarians.
15
How many fathers, brothers, sisters, mothers do you have?
16
How many names do you have?
17
How many names did a Roman man have? Write an example.
18
How many names did a Roman woman have? Write an example.
19
Who defends the native land on land? and on the ocean?
20
How many legs, bodies, feet, heads do you have?

familiā: servants, slaves
capite: head, from caput
nitidam: shining, bright, from nitidus
legiōnis: legion, from legio
corpus: body
crūra: leg, from crus
pedēs: foot, from pes

21
Where do soldiers wear a helmet?
22
If you have run a great deal, what sort of legs do you have?
23
If you have jumped a great deal, what sort of feet do you have?
24
If you have trained a great deal, what sort of body do you have?
25
When do soldiers not fight?
26
How many soldiers were there in one legion?
27
Against whom did Cornelius lead the Roman soldiers?
28
What is the daughter of Marcus Tullius Cicero called?
29
What is Sempronia's father called?

Give the forms: Scīpiō, pater

30
Scipio
31
father

Give the forms: pater, mīles

32
father
33
soldier

Give the forms: nōmen

34
name

III Dēclīnātiō, the third declension

One form serves two cases

In inter eōs et urbem Rōmam flūmen Tiberis fluēbat, flūmen means "river."

Flūmen is the nominative subject of fluēbat. In contrā tōtum hostium āgmen, āgmen is accusative after contrā.

Both nouns are third-declension neuters. Their case changes, but their singular form does not.

No ending marks either case

Neuter consonant stems add no ending in the nominative singular or the accusative singular.

The flūmen table shows flūmen as both nominative and accusative singular.

flūmin-

35
Marcus has already learned much about the famous battles of the ancient Romans; this story about Horatius he loves most of all.
36
The Etruscans, a strong people, lived near the Apennine mountains; between them and the city of Rome flowed the river Tiber.
37
Once Porsenna, king of this people, was waging war against the Romans and arrived at the Sublician bridge with a great army.
38
The Roman citizens fled to the citadel, the high part of the city, but did not break the bridge.
39
Unless someone breaks the bridge, the enemy will be able to cross the river and attack the city gate.
40
Who now wants to come down from the citadel?
41
Three leaders want to do this for their native land.
42
Horatius Cocles, Spurius Lartius, Titus Herminius ran down to the gate and began to defend the bridge against the whole army of the enemy.
43
The enemy attack them; they hold out for a long time.
44
Meanwhile other Roman soldiers break part of the bridge.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XL, §§235-236

§235. Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add -s. They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

§238. Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows:

          flūmen,    tempus,   opus,     caput,
          n., river    n., time    n., work    n., head
BASES OR
STEMS     flūmin-      tempor-     oper-       capit-

          SINGULAR                                     TERMINATIONS
Nom.      flūmen       tempus      opus        caput       --
Gen.      flūminis     temporis    operis      capitis    -is
Dat.      flūminī      temporī     operī       capitī     -ī
Acc.      flūmen       tempus      opus        caput       --
Abl.      flūmine      tempore     opere       capite     -e

           PLURAL
Nom.       flūmina      tempora     opera      capita     -a
Gen.       flūminum     temporum    operum     capitum    -um
Dat.       flūminibus   temporibus  operibus   capitibus  -ibus
Acc.       flūmina      tempora     opera      capita     -a
Abl.       flūminibus   temporibus  operibus   capitibus  -ibus

1. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension.

2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flūmen, base or stem flūmin-.

3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-.

dē: down from
clārīs: clear, from clarus
antīquōrum: men of old, ancients, from antiqui
proeliīs: battle, from proelium
amat: love, like, from amo
gēns: race, tribe
montēs: mountain, from mons
urbem: city, from urbs
flūmen: river
Tiberis: Tiber
rēx: king
pontem: bridge, from pons
Sublicium: resting on, from sublicius
āgmine: line of march, column, from agmen
advēnit: come to, arrive, from advenio
Cīvēs: citizen, from civis
arcem: citadel, stronghold, from arx
partem: part, region, from pars
frēgērunt: break, shatter, from frango
Nisi: unless, if ... not
hostēs: enemy, from hostis
Spurius: bastard, son of an unknown
dēcurrērunt: run, from decurro
resistunt: pause, from resisto
Intereā: meanwhile

45
The bridge was still standing when Horatius sent his two companions back inside the walls.
46
Alone on the narrow bridge he fought against three thousand of the enemy.
47
Suddenly he heard a shout; for the citizens, spectators of the battle, shouted: 'The bridge is broken!
48
Jump down now, Horatius!' He leaped from the end of the bridge into the middle of the river and swam to the walls.
49
There many citizens pulled the leader out of the water with ropes.
50
In this way Horatius saved the city.
51
When was a Roman a citizen? When a soldier?
52
Where did all the citizens flee?
53
Who wanted to come down from the citadel?
54
Tell something about Porsenna.

adhūc: hitherto, as yet
moenia: walls, fortifications
dīmīsit: send away, dismiss, from dimitto
mīlia: thousand, from mille
clāmōrem: shout, clamor, from clamor
spectātōrēs: spectator, from spectator
dēsiluit: leap down, dismount, from desilio
fūnibus: rope, from funis
trāxērunt: drag, draw, from traho
modō: measure, from modus
servāvit: save, preserve, from servo
aliquid: anyone, from aliquis

55
Who is now king of the Britons?
56
By what way did the enemy want to cross the river?
57
Where did Horatius send his companions?
58
With what instrument did the citizens pull the leader out of the water?
59
Is your father a citizen or a soldier?
60
If someone leads soldiers, what is he called?
61
If someone rules a people, what is he called?
62
Tell something about the Etruscans.
63
Which battles did Cornelius tell Marcus about?
64
If a strong wall defends a city, what is it called?
65
A farmer and his son watch the games; what are they called?

regit: govern, rule, from rego

Give the forms: gēns, urbs

66
race, tribe, nation
67
city

Give the forms: urbs, cīvis

68
city
69
citizen

Give the forms: rēx, flūmen

70
king
71
river

Give the forms: flūmen

72
river

Prōnōmen Relātīvum, the relative pronoun

The relative has its own case

Cornēlius Mārcum, quī nāvēs vidēre volēbat, Ōstium dūxit means "Cornelius took Marcus, who wanted to see the ships, to Ostia."

Quī is nominative because it is the subject of volēbat in its own clause.

Magister nāvis, quem in prōrā Mārcus videt, rēmigibus nautīsque iussa dat. It means "The ship's master, whom Marcus sees in the bow, gives orders to the rowers and sailors."

Quem is accusative because it is the direct object of videt in its own clause. The forms of quī show every case, number, and gender.

The forms of quī

Gender and number come from the antecedent

Quī and its antecedent Mārcum are masculine singular. Their cases differ because each has a different use in its own clause.

Quem and its antecedent magister are also masculine singular. Quem is accusative, while magister is nominative.

A relative agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. Its own clause determines its case.

73
Cornelius took Marcus, who wanted to see the ships, to Ostia.
74
They stand on the bank of the Tiber, and the blue sea lies before their eyes.
75
At the moment they arrive, a ship is approaching the mouth of the Tiber from the right.
76
The rowers sit on the benches, because the wind is against them, and slowly drive the ship forward.
77
The ship's master, whom Marcus sees in the bow, gives orders to the rowers and sailors.
78
The helmsman, who stands in the stern, turns the rudder, and the ship enters the river.
79
Now the wind is favourable; so the sailors put down the oars and hoist the sails on the mast with ropes.
80
The wind fills the sails, and the ship goes swiftly.
81
Then Marcus began to ask many things about the ship, which was already passing him; and his father explained everything to him thus:
82
The bow is the part of the ship you see from the front.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXVIII, §§219-227

§219. Sentences are simple, compound, or complex.

a. A simple sentence is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: The Romans approached the town.

b. A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more
independent statements:
  The Romans approached the town | and | the enemy fled.

NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement.

c. A complex sentence is a sentence containing one independent
statement and one or more dependent statements:
  When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled.

NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus the enemy fled is independent, and when the Romans approached the town is dependent or subordinate.

d. The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called clauses. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the main clause and the dependent statement the subordinate clause.

§220. Examine the complex sentence

The Romans killed the men who were taken

Here are two clauses:

a. The main clause, The Romans killed the men

b. The subordinate clause, who were taken

The word who is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun men. It also connects the subordinate clause who were taken with the noun men. Hence the clause is an adjective clause. A pronoun that connects an adjective clause with a substantive is called a relative pronoun, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The relative pronouns in English are who, whose, whom, which, what, that.

§221. The relative pronoun in Latin is quī, quae, quod, and it is declined as follows:

        SINGULAR                     PLURAL
        MASC.    FEM.     NEUT.      MASC.     FEM.      NEUT.
Nom.    quī      quae     quod       quī       quae      quae
Gen.    cuius    cuius    cuius      quōrum    quārum    quōrum
Dat.    cui      cui      cui        quibus    quibus    quibus
Acc.    quem     quam     quod       quōs      quās      quae
Abl.    quō      quā      quō        quibus    quibus    quibus

1. Review the declension of is, §114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms quī, quae, and quibus are the only forms showing new endings.

NOTE. The genitive cuius and the dative cui are pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os (two syllables) and co͝oi (one syllable).

§222. The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:[1]
[1] This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating.

         MASC. AND FEM.         NEUT.
Nom.    who, that              which, what, that
Gen.    of whom, whose         of which, of what, whose
Dat.    to or for whom       to or for which, to or for what
Acc.    whom, that             which, what, that
Abl.    from, etc., whom     from, etc., which or what

a. We see from the table above that quī, when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of who or by that; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by which, what, or that.

§223. Note the following sentences:

The Romans killed the men who were taken
The Romans killed the woman who was taken
Rōmānī interfēcērunt virōs quī captī sunt
Rōmānī interfēcērunt fēminam quae capta est

In the first sentence who (quī) refers to the antecedent men (virōs), and is masculine plural. In the second, who (quae) refers to woman (fēminam), and feminine singular. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. Virōs and fēminam are accusatives, and quī and quae are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence

§224. RULE. Agreement of the Relative. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause.

§225. Interrogative Pronouns. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are who? which? what? In Latin they are quis? quid? (pronoun) and quī? quae? quod? (adjective).

§226. Examine the sentences

a. Who is the man? Quis est vir?
b. What man is leading them? Quī vir eōs dūcit?

In a, who is an interrogative pronoun. In b, what is an interrogative adjective. Observe that in Latin quis, quid is the pronoun and quī, quae, quod is the adjective.

§227. 1. The interrogative adjective quī, quae, quod is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.)

2. The interrogative pronoun quis, quid is declined like quī, quae, quod in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows:

        MASC. AND FEM.                NEUT.
Nom.    quis, who?                  quid, what? which?
Gen.    cuius, whose?               cuius, whose?
Dat.    cui, to or for whom?      cui, to or for
                                        what or which?
Acc.    quem, whom?                 quid, what? which?
Abl.    quō, from, etc., whom?    quō, from, etc.,
                                        which or what?

NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid.

nāvēs: ship, from navis
Ōstium: doorway
mare: sea
Rēmigēs: oarsman, rower, from remex
trānstrīs: crossbeam, from transtrum
ventus: wind
adversus: opposite
prōpellunt: drive forward, from propello
prōrā: prow
iussa: order, command, from jussum
Gubernātor: pilot
puppī: stern, from puppis
gubernāculum: helm, rudder
rēmōs: oar, from remus
vēla: sail, covering, from velum
mālum: mallow-plant
ērigunt: raise, erect, from erigo
implet: fill up, from impleo
praeterībat: pass, from praetereo
rogāre: ask, ask for, from rogo
exposuit: set, from expono

83
The beak is the part of the bow that cuts the sea.
84
The stern is the part of the ship in which the helmsman stands.
85
The helmsman is the one we see in the stern.
86
The rudder is the thing with which he steers the ship.
87
The rowers are the sailors who sit on the benches.
88
The oars are the things with which they row.
89
The mast is the thing to which the ropes join the sails.
90
The sails are the things the wind fills.
91
The wind that fills the sails is favourable.
92
The benches are the seats where the rowers sit.

Rōstrum: beak, curved bow
secat: follow, from sequor
gubernat: steer, drive, from guberno
Rēmī: oar
rēmigant: row, use oars, from remigo
vela: sail, covering
coniungunt: join together, from conjungo

93
Marseilles is the town the ship came out from.
94
Ostia is the town the ship is going to.
95
Then Marcus, not yet satisfied, asks: 'Whose is the ship?' 'The one whose ship it is is called the master, but I don't know his name.' Then Marcus says, 'I shall be a ship's master.'
96
What is he called who tills a field? he who learns? he who fights? the thing you write with? the thing you write? the thing a rower rows with? the bridge Horatius defended? a wind that does not fill the sails? the part of the city the citizens fled to? she who has sons?
97
What are they called, the limbs you fight with? the weapons the Romans threw? the seats where rowers sit? those who defended the bridge with Horatius? the enemies against whom they fought? those who lead? women who have brothers? the things the farmer and his son watched?

contentus: strain, struggle, from contendo
Cūius: whose?, from cujus
īgnōrō: not know

Adiectīva III Dēclīnātiōnis, adjectives of the third declension

-is for masculine, -e for neuter

Canem autem meum amō, quia fidēlis est means I love my dog because he is faithful.

Docile enim animal est means for he is a teachable animal.

Fidēlis agrees with masculine canem. Docile agrees with neuter animal.

Two nominative endings

Third-declension adjectives in -is use -is for masculine and feminine nominative singular, but -e for neuter.

Omnis and omne give both endings of one adjective. Their tables give its masculine, feminine, and neuter singular cases.

Masc. and fem

Neut

One nominative form

Rapācēs sunt hae avēs means these birds are greedy.

A one-ending adjective has one nominative singular form for all three genders.

Its genders differ only in the accusative singular and the nominative and accusative plural. The pār table gives the singular forms.

98
My father is rich; for he has many fertile fields and countless cattle.
99
Yesterday I had a holiday and after lunch I was wandering through our countryside.
100
I was going out of the house when two doves flew down from the roof and settled on my shoulders.
101
Cocks and hens were running around my feet, and to all of them I gave food.
102
These birds are greedy; for always, as they wander slowly here and there, they thrust their beaks into the ground and look for food; if one finds food, the others at once run up and fight over the food.
103
But they are useful, because they give us eggs and sweet meat.
104
Yet I do not love animals that are not faithful; for unless I have grain with me, the hens avoid me and do not come when I call them.
105
But I love my dog, because he is faithful and, when I walk through our countryside, always comes with me; nor does he want to kill the birds, for he is a teachable animal, and I have often taught him not to kill the hens.
106
Do you know my dog's name?
107
I call him Rufus, because he has a red coat.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XLV, §§250-257

§250. Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like bonus, aeger, or līber), or they are of the third declension.

§251. Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have i-stems, and they are declined almost like nouns with i-stems.

§252. Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, bonus, m.; bona, f.; bonum, n. Such an adjective is called an adjective of three endings. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes:

I. Adjectives of three endings--
  a different form in the nominative for each gender.

II. Adjectives of two endings--
   masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different.

III. Adjectives of one ending--
    masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike.

§253. Adjectives of the third declension in -er have three endings; those in -is have two endings; the others have one ending.

CLASS I

§254. Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows:

ācer, ācris, ācre, keen, eager
STEM ācri-
BASE ācr-

        SINGULAR               PLURAL
        MASC.  FEM.   NEUT.    MASC.       FEM.        NEUT.
Nom.    ācer   ācris  ācre     ācrēs       ācrēs       ācria
Gen.    ācris  ācris  ācris    ācrium      ācrium      ācrium
Dat.    ācrī   ācrī   ācrī     ācribus     ācribus     ācribus
Acc.    ācrem  ācrem  ācre     ācrīs, -ēs  ācrīs, -ēs  ācria
Abl.    ācrī   ācrī   ācrī     ācribus     ācribus     ācribus

CLASS II

§255. Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows:

omnis, omne, every, all[1]
STEM omni-
BASE omn-
[1] omnis is usually translated every in the singular and all in the plural.

        SINGULAR                 PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.    MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
Nom.    omnis           omne     omnēs           omnia
Gen.    omnis           omnis    omnium          omnium
Dat.    omnī            omnī     omnibus         omnibus
Acc.    omnem           omne     omnīs, -ēs      omnia
Abl.    omnī            omnī     omnibus         omnibus

CLASS III

§256. Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows:

pār, equal
 STEM pari-
 BASE par-

        SINGULAR                 PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.    MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
Nom.    pār             pār      parēs           paria
Gen.    paris           paris    parium          parium
Dat.    parī            parī     paribus         paribus
Acc.    parem           pār      parīs, -ēs      paria
Abl.    parī            parī     paribus         paribus

1. All i-stem adjectives have -ī in the ablative singular.

2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural.

3. Decline vir ācer, legiō ācris, animal ācre, ager omnis, scūtum omne, proelium pār.

§257. There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems.

dīves: rich man
fertilēs: fertile, fruitful, from fertilis
pecudēs: cattle, herd, from pecus
rūra: country, farm, from rus
columbae: pigeon, from columba
umerīs: shoulder, from umerus
gallīnae: hen, chicken, from gallina
Rapācēs: grasping, rapacious, from rapax
avēs: bird, from avis
occurrunt: hurt, from obcurro
Ūtilēs: useful, profitable, from utilis
ōva: egg, from ovum
dulcem: pleasant, charming, from dulcis
carnem: meat, flesh, from caro
fidēlia: earthen pot
frūmentum: grain
Canem: dog, from canis
fidēlis: faithful
docile: easily taught, teachable, from docilis
Nōvistīne: get to know, from nosco
pellem: skin, hide, from pellis

108
Who tells this story?
109
Which animal is teachable?
110
Which meat is sweet?
111
Which bird is greedy?
112
How are hens useful?
113
Which animals are not faithful?
114
What are those like who have many fields?
115
What is he like who always loves his friend?
116
Write the names of the animals you know.
117
Which of these animals are teachable?

118
Which are useful to us?
119
How is a horse useful to us?
120
What in our room is useful?
121
What sort of fields are useful to us?
122
Explain the words: rich, teachable, faithful, bird, cock.

Explicā: unfold, extend, from explico
vocābula: noun, common, from vocabulum

Third-declension agreement in -ia

Carmina et trīstia et dulcia sibi ovibusque cantat means he sings songs, both sad and sweet, to himself and his sheep.

The adjectives trīstia and dulcia agree with carmina as neuter plural accusatives. Third-declension adjectives use -ia here.

Third-declension agreement in -ī

Quae trīstī vōce eōs vocābant means who called them with a sad voice.

The adjective trīstī agrees with vōce as feminine ablative singular, though their endings differ. The third-declension adjective takes -ī.

123
Then the dog and I went through the countryside, where our slaves were working.
124
A ploughman was ploughing a field; two oxen were pulling the plough, their necks joined by a yoke.
125
In the next field we saw a shepherd.
126
The old man is poor and mostly sits alone; and so he sings songs, both sad and sweet, to himself and his sheep.
127
Around the shepherd a flock of sheep wandered slowly.
128
Little lambs were leaping about far from their mothers, who called them with a sad voice; but our dog, a clever animal, soon drove them back to their mothers.
129
I was entering another field when a huge bull began to charge at me.
130
This bull is always fierce; so I fled home with the dog, who is not bold if he sees a bull near him.
131
Look, three pigs have wandered into the garden!
132
With loud shouts I wanted to drive them out, but it is difficult to teach pigs; these at least would not do what I ordered.

Arātor: plowman
arābat: plow, till, from aro
arātrum: plow, from arater
bovēs: ox, cow, from bos
iugō: yoke, from jugum
proximō: nearest, next, from proximus
pāstōrem: shepherd, herdsman, from pastor
Senex: old man
pauper: poor
plērumque: generally, commonly
carmina: card for wool, from carmen
trīstia: sad, sorrowful, from tristis
grēx: flock, herd
ovium: sheep, from ovis
vōce: voice, from vox
sagāx: keen-scented
redēgit: drive back, from redigo
ingēns: huge, vast
incurrere: run into or towards, attack, from incurro
audāx: bold, audacious
suēs: swine, from sus
hortum: garden, fruit, from hortus
expellere: drive out, from expello
difficile: difficult, from difficilis
saltem: at least, anyhow

133
So without delay I took a stick and with the dog drove those stupid animals out of the garden.
134
Which animals are clever? Which stupid?
135
When are we not bold?
136
Who was driving the sheep? Who drove the lambs back?
137
What sort of song was the shepherd singing?
138
What sort of men are shepherds?
139
How did Marcus want to drive out the pigs? How did the sheep call their lambs?
140
Is it easy or difficult to teach a donkey? to teach a horse?
141
What sort of songs do you love?
142
Why does the shepherd always sing?

Baculum: small berry
stulta: foolish, stupid, from stultus
hominēs: man, human being, from homo
facile: facile, easy, from facilis

143
By what way do pigs always want to go?
144
Why did the dog flee home?
145
When was Marcus timid? When bold?
146
Is this exercise easy?

Give the forms: senex

147
old man

IV Dēclīnātiō, the fourth declension

Two endings in one line

Ex portū Carthāginis ad Ītaliam tantum exercitum vehere nāvēs nōn poterant.

"Ships could not carry so great an army from the harbour of Carthage to Italy."

Exercitum is the accusative object of vehere and ends in -um. Ex takes the ablative, so portū ends in -ū.

The subject has a third ending

Nunquam anteā tantus exercitus tam longum iter fēcit!

"Never before had so great an army made so long a march!"

Exercitus is the nominative subject of fēcit. Its -us ending contrasts with accusative exercitum.

Masculine nouns of the fourth declension use nominative -us, accusative -um, and ablative -ū. The forms of adventus show all three endings.

148
Gaius Cornelius Scipio was sitting with his two sons under a shady portico.
149
Marcus said to him: 'Tell us, father, the story about that Hannibal whom our grandfather defeated.' 'Certainly! but today I shall tell you not about Scipio's victory but about the great march Hannibal made across the Alps.
150
'The Carthaginians lived in a great and beautiful city in Africa, which was called Carthage.
151
The leader of the Carthaginians, Hannibal, a brave and prudent man, wanted to take Rome.
152
So he decided to invade Italy with a huge army.
153
In this army there were foot-soldiers and cavalry and javelin-throwers and elephants.
154
Ships could not carry so great an army from the harbour of Carthage to Italy; for they were small in those days.
155
So Hannibal decided to lead the army through Spain and Gaul.
156
Never before had so great an army made so long a march!
157
He crossed the river Ebro and the Pyrenees.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XLVI, §§259-260

§259. Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter.

§260. Masculine nouns end in -us, neuters in -ū. The genitive ends in -ūs.

a. Feminine by exception are domus, house; manus, hand; and a few others.

PARADIGMS

       adventus,     cornū,
       m., arrival     n., horn
STEMS  adventu-        cornu-
BASES  advent-         corn-

        SINGULAR                   TERMINATIONS
        MASC.           NEUT.
Nom.    adventus        cornū      -us      -ū
Gen.    adventūs        cornūs     -ūs      -ūs
Dat.    adventuī (ū)    cornū      -uī (ū)  -ū
Acc.    adventum        cornū      -um      -ū
Abl.    adventū         cornū      -ū       -ū

        PLURAL
Nom.    adventūs        cornua     -ūs       -ua
Gen.    adventuum       cornuum    -uum      -uum
Dat.    adventibus      cornibus   -ibus     -ibus
Acc.    adventūs        cornua     -ūs       -ua
Abl.    adventibus      cornibus   -ibus     -ibus

1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular.

2. lacus, lake, has the ending -ubus in the dative and ablative plural; portus, harbor, has either -ubus or -ibus.

3. cornū is the only neuter that is in common use.

sub: under, below
porticū: colonnade, covered walk, from porticus
umbrōsā: shady, shadowy, from umbrosus
avus: grandfather
itinere: march, journey, from iter
Alpēs: Alps, mountains to the north, from Alpis
Poenī: penalty, punishment
incolēbant: inhabit, from incolo
Carthāgō: Carthage
fortis: brave
prūdēns: aware, skilled
exercitū: army, from exercitus
invādere: enter, attempt, from invado
cōnstituit: establish, determine, from constituo
peditēs: foot soldier, from pedes
equitēs: horseman, cavalryman, from eques
iaculātōrēs: javelin thrower, from jaculator
elephantī: elephant, from elephantus
portū: harbor, from portus
Pȳrēnaeōs: Pyrenees, from Pyrenaeus

158
Through Gaul he made a long march.
159
It was difficult to cross the Rhone, because the Gallic tribes were hostile.'
160
Where did the Carthaginians live?
161
What sort of city was Carthage?
162
What sort of city do you live in?
163
In which part of a city do ships stay?
164
From where do ships go out to sea?
165
Why did Hannibal decide to cross the sea?
166
What did Hannibal decide to do?
167
Where was Cornelius telling this story?

Rhodanum: Rhone, from Rhodanus
īnfestae: unsafe, dangerous, from infestus

168
Why was he sitting there?
169
What is one's father's father called?
170
What is he called who throws javelins?
171
What are they called who go on foot?
172
What is a soldier called whom a horse carries?
173
What sort of animal is an elephant? a horse? a donkey?
174
Hannibal (accusative).

cōnicit: throw, from conicio
elephās: elephant

Adverbia, adverbs

Adverbs keep one form

Hannibal etiam in Alpibus prūdenter ībat means Hannibal too went carefully in the Alps.

In vir fortis et prūdēns, fortis and prūdēns describe vir. In prūdenter vītābat and fortiter ībat, the adverbs tell how Hannibal acted.

Adverbs have no declension, so prūdenter and fortiter do not take forms that agree with nouns.

Form the adverb

A third-declension adjective with two or three endings usually adds -iter to its base. Fortis has two endings, and fortiter means bravely.

A third-declension adjective with one ending usually adds -ter to its base. Audāx has one ending, and audācter means boldly.

The forms of fortis and audāx show the two positive adverb endings beside their comparative and superlative forms.

From the book

175
'Hannibal, however, was a brave and prudent man; for he prudently avoided all the dangers he could avoid; but if he could not avoid them, he himself went bravely first into the danger.
176
At last he reached the foot of the Alps; there a certain Gaul showed him a pass.
177
The way through the mountains was rough and narrow; so the ascent was difficult.'
178
Marcus asked his father: 'Can an elephant, so heavy an animal, climb a mountain?'
179
'Yes, my son; an elephant is teachable and cleverly does what its master orders; these elephants at least climbed up with the rest of the army, not without great labour.'
180
Then Marcus said, 'Elephants cannot run fast, father.' But Cornelius said, 'On the contrary, elephants run fast on the plain and through the woods; but in the mountains they go slowly and carefully.
181
Hannibal too went carefully in the Alps, because the barbarian tribes that lived there often attacked him boldly.
182
Once they began to roll huge rocks down from the mountaintops onto the army; the archers at once took up their bows and shot arrows at the enemy; but these hid behind great rocks and did not boldly show themselves again.'

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LVII, §§319-325

§319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.

§320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

        POSITIVE                COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    cārus, dear             cārior       cārissimus
Adv.    cārē, dearly            cārius       cārissimē

Adj.    pulcher, beautiful      pulchrior    pulcherrimus
Adv.    pulchrē, beautifully    pulchrius    pulcherrimē

Adj.    līber, free             līberior     līberrimus
Adv.    līberē, freely          līberius     līberrimē

a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -ē to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.

§321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;[1] as,
[1] This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.

        POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    fortis, brave         fortior      fortissimus
Adv.    fortiter, bravely     fortius      fortissimē

Adj.    audāx, bold           audācior     audācissimus
Adv.    audācter, boldly      audācius     audācissimē

§322. Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

Adj.    facilis, easy               prīmus, first
Adv.    facile (acc.), easily       prīmum (acc.), first
                                    prīmō (abl.), at first
Adj.    multus, many                plūrimus, most
Adv.    multum (acc.), much         plūrimum (acc.), most
        multō (abl.), by much

§323. Learn the following irregular comparisons:

bene, well             melius, better      optimē, best
diū, long (time)     diūtius, longer     diūtissimē, longest
magnopere, greatly     magis, more         maximē, most
parum, little          minus, less         minimē, least
prope, nearly, near    propius, nearer     proximē, nearest
saepe, often           saepius, oftener    saepissimē, oftenest

§324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: laetus, superbus, molestus, amīcus, ācer, brevis, gravis, recēns.

§325. RULE. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

perīcula: danger, peril, from periculum
prūdenter: wisely, discreetly
ipse: self
fortiter: strongly
pervēnit: come through, arrive, from pervenio
quīdam: a certain one, a certain
saltum: leap, spring, from saltus
ascēnsus: ascent
grave: heavy, severe, from gravis
ascendere: climb, from ascendo
imperat: order, command, from impero
labōre: labor, toil, from labor
celeriter: quickly
Immō: no indeed
vērō: truly, indeed
audācter: boldly
saxa: rock, stone, from saxum
dēvolvere: roll, from devolvo
sagittāriī: archer, bowman
arcūs: box, chest
sagittās: arrow, from sagitta
mīsērunt: send, from mitto
latēbant: lie hidden, lurk, from lateo
ostendēbant: show, from ostendo

III Dēclīnātiō, the third declension

Soldiers in two cases

mīles adds -s

mīlit-

māter adds no ending

Give the forms: Scīpiō, pater

Give the forms: pater, mīles

Give the forms: nōmen

III Dēclīnātiō, the third declension

One form serves two cases

No ending marks either case

flūmin-

Give the forms: gēns, urbs

Give the forms: urbs, cīvis

Give the forms: rēx, flūmen

Give the forms: flūmen

Prōnōmen Relātīvum, the relative pronoun

The relative has its own case

The forms of quī

Gender and number come from the antecedent

Adiectīva III Dēclīnātiōnis, adjectives of the third declension

-is for masculine, -e for neuter

Two nominative endings

Masc. and fem

Neut

One nominative form

Third-declension agreement in -ia

Third-declension agreement in -ī

Give the forms: senex

IV Dēclīnātiō, the fourth declension

Two endings in one line

The subject has a third ending

Adverbia, adverbs

Adverbs keep one form

Form the adverb

From the book

The particulars