Prīmus et Secundus Annus, Lēctiōnēs 37–43

V Dēclīnātiō, the fifth declension

Duration and time when

Novem diēs Poenī Alpēs ascendēbant means "For nine days the Carthaginians were climbing the Alps."

Decimō diē ad summum saltum pervēnērunt means "On the tenth day they reached the top of the pass."

Novem diēs is accusative plural for duration. Decimō diē is ablative singular for the time when.

The fifth-declension forms

Diēs belongs to the fifth declension. The line uses its accusative plural diēs and its ablative singular diē.

The table shows both forms among the complete forms of diēs.

Paradigms

1
'The Carthaginians were doing a difficult thing.
'Remres: thing, matter
difficilemdifficilis: difficult, troublesome
PoenīPoeni: penalty, punishment
faciēbant.facio: make, do; cause, bring about
2
For the road was not only rough but also broken in many places.
3
There neither elephants nor horses nor donkeys, not even men, could take a step.'
4
Marcus said, 'About the donkeys, father, you have said nothing.
5
Were there donkeys too in Hannibal's army?' 'There were donkeys in the army, which carried the baggage.
6
No one, as I said, could take a step where the road was broken.
7
Then the foot-soldiers and javelin-throwers climbed the rocks on knees and hands, and then dragged the animals across the difficult place with ropes.
8
And so the whole column came again onto a safe road.
9
Here deep snow lay on the mountain, there ice; and the army could not advance until the foot-soldiers had made a way through the snow and ice.
10
'For nine days the Carthaginians were climbing the Alps; on the tenth day they reached the top of the pass.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XLVIII, §§272-275

§272. Gender. Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except diēs, day, and merīdiēs, midday, which are usually masculine.

§273. PARADIGMS

        diēs,     rēs, f.,
        m., day     thing
STEMS   diē-        rē-
BASES   di-         r-

        SINGULAR          TERMINATIONS
Nom.    diēs        rēs      -ēs
Gen.    diēī        reī      -ē̆ī
Dat.    diēī        reī      -ē̆ī
Acc.    diem        rem      -em
Abl.    diē         rē       -ē

        PLURAL
Nom.    diēs        rēs      -ēs
Gen.    diērum      rērum    -ērum
Dat.    diēbus      rēbus    -ēbus
Acc.    diēs        rēs      -ēs
Abl.    diēbus      rēbus    -ēbus

1. The vowel e which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending -eī after a consonant, as in r-ĕī; and before -m in the accusative singular, as in di-em. (Cf. §12.2.)

2. Only diēs and rēs are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. Aciēs, line of battle, and spēs, hope, have the nominative and accusative plural.

§274. The ablative relation (§50) which is expressed by the prepositions at, in, or on may refer not only to place, but also to time, as at noon, in summer, on the first day. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the ablative of time.

§275. RULE. The Ablative of Time. The time when or within which anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition.

a. Occasionally the preposition in is found. Compare the English Next day we started and On the next day we started.

Rem: thing, matter, from res
modo: only, merely
rupta: break, from rumpo
nē: in order that not, that
quidem: to be sure, certainly
gradum: step, from gradus
asinīs: she-ass, from asina
onera: load, burden, from onus
genibus: cheeks, from genu
manibusque: hand, from manus
tūtam: see, look at, from tueor
nivēs: snow, from nix
glaciēs: ice
prōcēdere: proceed, from procedo
antequam: before, sooner than
decimō: December, from decimus

11
Then Hannibal called all the soldiers together and said to them something like this: "We are the first army to have crossed the Alps; the descent still awaits us; this will surely be easy for us who have done so new and difficult a thing; in five days we shall stand in the plains of Italy; be brave! go down!"'
12
How many days was Hannibal climbing? In how many days did he reach the top of the Alps? On which day did he arrive there?
13
With which limbs did the Carthaginians climb the rocks?
14
Where could not even men take a step?
15
Why could the archers not kill many of the enemy?
16
From where did the barbarians roll down rocks? What sort of rocks?
17
What were the barbarians like?
18
After the leader called the soldiers together, what are the soldiers like?
19
What did the leader order the soldiers?
20
What missiles do archers shoot?

convocāvit: call together, summon, from convoco
tālia: such, from talis
dēscēnsus: decent, climbing
certē: fixed, certain, from certus
summās: above, high, from superus
Postquam: after, as soon as

21
With what instrument did the soldiers drag the animals? Across what sort of place?
22
What lay on the mountain? What was it like?
23
How many feet deep does snow sometimes lie in Britain?
24
Have you ever seen ice on a river?
25
What sort of loads did the donkeys carry?
26
What were these loads?

Give the forms: genū

27
knee

Comparātiō, comparison

Higher and highest forms

Peditēs celeriōrēs fuērunt quam equitēs means the foot-soldiers were faster than the cavalry.

The comparative adds -ior for masculine and feminine forms, or -ius for neuter forms, to the adjective base.

The superlative adds -issimus, -issima, or -issimum. The comparison table shows both sets of suffixes on adjectives with their meanings.

From the book

Comparison still agrees

In campō peditēs lentiōrēs sunt quam equitēs uses masculine plural peditēs with lentiōrēs.

Lentiōrēs is masculine, plural, and nominative because it agrees with peditēs.

Comparative adjectives take the endings of consonant stems in the third declension. The forms of clāriōrēs show the masculine and feminine plural endings.

Masc. and fem

A special superlative

Difficillimam hanc rem fēcit means he has done this very difficult thing.

Difficillimam is the superlative of difficilis. Six adjectives in -lis add -limus to the base instead of -issimus.

Difficillimam is feminine, singular, and accusative because it agrees with rem.

28
The story was long, and the next day Cornelius went on telling of Hannibal's march:
29
'The descent of the Alps was more difficult than the ascent.
30
On the plain foot-soldiers are slower than cavalry; but while Hannibal's army was coming down from the mountaintops, the foot-soldiers were faster than the cavalry; the elephants were the slowest of all.
31
Sometimes the elephants stayed a long time in the higher places and would not come down to the lower ones; for the road, which beyond the Alps was rough and dangerous, was on this side rougher and more dangerous; and elephants, the heaviest animals of all, could not easily climb up or down.
32
At last the soldiers saw the fertile plains of Italy below; at once their spirits were braver; for the end of the very long march was at hand.
33
'In ten days they reached the top of the Alps; in fewer days they came down to the plain.
34
But after the Romans heard of this so difficult feat, they began to cry out: "Who can save us now?
35
Isn't Hannibal braver and more prudent than all our generals?
36
He has done this very difficult thing; it will be much easier to take our city." But after the march the army of the Carthaginians, which before was larger than the Roman, was much smaller.'
37
Then Marcus said, 'Did Hannibal take Rome?' His father answered him: 'Do you really ask this, my son, you who are a Roman boy?'

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LIII, §§300-305

§300. The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative; as, positive high, comparative higher, superlative highest. Less frequently we use the adverbs more and most; as, positive beautiful, comparative more beautiful, superlative most beautiful.

In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs.

§301. Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows:

POSITIVE          COMPARATIVE          SUPERLATIVE
clārus, -a, -um   clārior, clārius     clārissimus, -a, -um
  (bright)        (brighter)         (brightest)
  (BASE clār-)
brevis, breve     brevior, brevius     brevissimus, -a, -um
  (short)         (shorter)          (shortest)
  (BASE brev-)
vēlōx             vēlōcior, vēlōcius   vēlōcissimus, -a, -um
  (swift)         (swifter)          (swiftest)
  (BASE veloc-)

a. The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding -ior masc. and fem., and -ius neut.; the superlative by adding -issimus, -issima, -issimum.

§302. Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs magis, more; maximē, most; as, idōneus, suitable; magis idōneus, more suitable; maximē idōneus, most suitable.

§303. Declension of the Comparative. Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows:

        SINGULAR                     PLURAL
        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.        MASC. AND FEM.  NEUT.
Nom.    clārior         clārius      clāriōrēs       clāriōra
Gen.    clāriōris       clāriōris    clāriōrum       clāriōrum
Dat.    clāriōrī        clāriōrī     clāriōribus     clāriōribus
Acc.    clāriōrem       clārius      clāriōrēs       clāriōra
Abl.    clāriōre        clāriōre     clāriōribus     clāriōribus

a. Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension.

b. Compare longus, long; fortis, brave; recēns (base, recent-), recent; and decline the comparative of each.

§304. Adjectives in -er form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding -rimus, -a, -um to the nominative masculine of the positive; as,

POSITIVE                    COMPARATIVE           SUPERLATIVE
ācer, ācris, ācre           ācrior, ācrius        ācerrimus, -a, -um
  (BASE acr-)
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum  pulchrior, pulchrius  pulcherrimus,
  (BASE pulchr-)                                    -a, -um
līber, lībera, līberum      līberior, līberius    līberrimus, -a, -um
  (BASE līber-)

a. In a similar manner compare miser, aeger, crēber.

§305. The comparative is often translated by quite, too, or somewhat, and the superlative by very; as, altior, quite (too, somewhat) high; altissimus, very high.

§307. The following six adjectives in -lis form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding -limus to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison.

POSITIVE                   COMPARATIVE         SUPERLATIVE
facilis, -e, easy          facilior, -ius      facillimus, -a, -um
difficilis, -e, hard       difficilior, -ius   difficillimus, -a, -um
similis, -e, like          similior, -ius      simillimus, -a, -um
dissimilis, -e, unlike     dissimilior, -ius   dissimillimus, -a, -um
gracilis, -e, slender      gracilior, -ius     gracillimus, -a, -um
humilis, -e, low           humilior, -ius      humillimus, -a, -um

§308. From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence Nothing is brighter than the sun

Nihil est clārius quam sōl

But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way,

Nihil est clārius sōle

which, literally translated, is Nothing is brighter away from the sun; that is, starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative sōle. Hence the rule

§309. RULE. Ablative with Comparatives. The comparative degree, if quam is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative.

perrēxit: go on, proceed, from pergo
celeriōrēs: swift, quick, from celer
Interdum: sometimes, now and then
loca: seat, rank, from locum
īnferiōra: below, beneath, from inferus
ūltrā: beyond, further
perīculōsa: dangerous, hazardous, from periculosus
citrā: near, from citer
animī: mind, heart, from animus
fīnis: end, limit
imperātōrēs: commander in chief, general, from imperator
At: but
Num: whether

38
Hannibal with other generals. (prudent.)
39
the ascent of the Alps with the descent. (difficult.)
40
an elephant with a horse. (teachable.)
41
a dog with a donkey. (clever.)
42
mountains with plains. (high.)
43
this exercise with the thirtieth. (easy.)
44
Hannibal's march with the journey you make every day. (long.)
45
foot-soldiers with cavalry. (slow.)
46
cavalry with foot-soldiers. (swift.)
47
dogs with oxen. (faithful.)

48
a soldier with a citizen. (brave.)
49
Brutus with Orbilius. (stupid.)
50
a pupil who never works with one who sometimes works. (idle.)
51
a boy who has trained his body with one who has not. (strong.)
52
the fourteenth sentence with the fourth. (long.)
53
hens with doves. (greedy.)
54
Cornelius with the shepherd. (rich.)
55
the shepherd's song with the cock's song. (sweet.)
56
the Po with the Danube. (swift.)
57
Italy with Sicily. (big.)

58
a bull and a sheep and a dog. (fierce.)
59
the Alps and the Pyrenees and the Apennines. (high.)
60
the Danube and the Tiber and the Po. (long.)
61
Britain and Corsica and Sicily. (big.)
62
a leader and a shepherd and a ploughman. (brave.)
63
a horse and a cow and a pig. (faithful.)
64
a dog and a donkey and a bull. (clever.)
65
a pen and a chair and a door. (small.)
66
Brutus and Marcus and Tertius. (stupid.)
67
this part of the exercise and the first and the second. (easy.)
68
this sentence and the first and the third. (short.)

Comparātiō Adverbiōrum, comparison of adverbs

Celerius and celerrimē

Cervī enim celerius quam canēs currunt, et celerrimē omnium animālium means "deer run faster than dogs, and fastest of all animals."

A comparative adverb uses the neuter comparative adjective form. A regular superlative adverb ends in -ē.

Celerius is comparative. Celerrimē is superlative.

Māximē is irregular

Sed ego canem māximē āmō means "But I love the dog most of all."

Magnopere, magis, and maximē form the irregular comparison greatly, more, most.

The table groups six adverbs with their irregular comparative and superlative forms.

69
Marcus used to ask the bailiff many things every day about animals.
70
Once, while they were walking through the fields, he said, 'Tell me, Davus, isn't the dog the fastest of all animals?'
71
Davus answered, 'No, for deer run faster than dogs, and fastest of all animals.'
72
Then Marcus said, 'Don't hunters have dogs that drive deer in the woods?
73
Why then do they use these dogs, if they run more slowly than deer?'
74
'That is so, as you say,' answered the bailiff; 'there are hunting dogs that surpass even deer in speed.'
75
Then Marcus said, 'But surely, if not the fastest, the dog is at least the most useful of all animals.'
76
Then the bailiff: 'What are you saying, Marcus?
77
To me perhaps and to other shepherds the dog is most useful; but to a soldier the horse, to a farmer the ox, to a traveller the mule: to different people different animals are more useful than the dog.'
78
Marcus, who thought about this answer for a long time, at last said, 'But I love the dog most of all, and I play more gladly with my dog than with all other animals.'

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LVII, §§319-325

§319. Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. sweet, adv. sweetly). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension.

§320. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows:

        POSITIVE                COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    cārus, dear             cārior       cārissimus
Adv.    cārē, dearly            cārius       cārissimē

Adj.    pulcher, beautiful      pulchrior    pulcherrimus
Adv.    pulchrē, beautifully    pulchrius    pulcherrimē

Adj.    līber, free             līberior     līberrimus
Adv.    līberē, freely          līberius     līberrimē

a. The positive of the adverb is formed by adding -ē to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way.

b. The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective.

§321. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding -iter to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and -ter to the base of those of one ending;[1] as,
[1] This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.

        POSITIVE              COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE
Adj.    fortis, brave         fortior      fortissimus
Adv.    fortiter, bravely     fortius      fortissimē

Adj.    audāx, bold           audācior     audācissimus
Adv.    audācter, boldly      audācius     audācissimē

§322. Case Forms as Adverbs. As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as,

Adj.    facilis, easy               prīmus, first
Adv.    facile (acc.), easily       prīmum (acc.), first
                                    prīmō (abl.), at first
Adj.    multus, many                plūrimus, most
Adv.    multum (acc.), much         plūrimum (acc.), most
        multō (abl.), by much

§323. Learn the following irregular comparisons:

bene, well             melius, better      optimē, best
diū, long (time)     diūtius, longer     diūtissimē, longest
magnopere, greatly     magis, more         maximē, most
parum, little          minus, less         minimē, least
prope, nearly, near    propius, nearer     proximē, nearest
saepe, often           saepius, oftener    saepissimē, oftenest

§324. Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: laetus, superbus, molestus, amīcus, ācer, brevis, gravis, recēns.

§325. RULE. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

vīlicum: wife of a farm overseer, from vilicus
cervī: doe, hind, from cervus
vēnātōribus: hunter, from venator
adhibent: summon, invite, from adhibeo
ista: that, from iste
vēnāticī: for hunting, from venaticus
celeritāte: speed, from celeritas
superant: conquer, overcome, from supero
fortasse: perhaps, possibly
aliīsque: some ... others
viātōrī: traveling, from viatorius
mūlus: she-mule
libentius: nibble, sip, from libet

79
On the plain a horseman is faster than a foot-soldier. (to go.)
80
In the mountains a horseman is slower than a foot-soldier.
81
A dog is cleverer than a pig. (to drive lambs back.)
82
A horse is more faithful than a donkey. (to love its master.)
83
Caesar was more prudent than Hannibal. (to lead an army.)
84
Hannibal was bolder than Caesar. (to wage war.)
85
A soldier is braver than a shepherd. (to fight.)
86
The river Po is faster than the Rhone. (to flow.)
87
Quintus is a better writer than Titus. (to write.)
88
This slave is a worse ploughman than that one. (to plough.)

scrīptor: writer, author

89
Which runs faster, you or your friend?
90
Of our pupils, who runs fastest? who sings best? who does the Latin exercise most easily? who is absent most often?
91
Which instruments are useful to you in school?
92
Which instrument is most useful to the master?
93
Which language do you learn more gladly, French or Latin?
94
What sort of animal is a deer?
95
Whom does a deer flee?
96
Does a deer run faster than hunting dogs?
97
To which people are dogs useful?

optimē: very well, best of all

Gerundium, the gerund

Agreement does not determine case

Hostēs, quōs Rōmānī cēpērunt, servī fīunt means "The enemies whom the Romans captured become slaves."

Hostēs and quōs are masculine plural, but their cases differ. Hostēs is nominative as the subject of fīunt. Quōs is accusative as the direct object of cēpērunt.

A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. Its use in its own clause determines its case.

98
The enemies whom the Romans captured become slaves.
99
Some were barbarians and unskilled; so they tilled the fields or pastured the cattle.
100
Other slaves were Greeks, who were often more learned and always cleverer than the Romans.
101
These looked after the master's books, wrote letters, counted money.
102
The mistress too had many slave-women, who made clothes or looked after the baby.
103
For the stola and tunic which Sempronia wears, and the toga which Cornelius wears, the slave-women made at home.
104
Near Cornelius stands a messenger; soon he will go to Rome and deliver a letter to the master's friend.
105
Slaves who were born in the villa and have always lived there are called vernae.
106
Marcus has a little verna, who goes with him to school and carries his books.
107
With what purpose does Marcus himself go to school?

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LXXI, §§401-410

§401. Review the word lists in §§510, 511.

§402. The Gerund. Suppose we had to translate the sentence

By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory

We can see that overcoming here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in -ing, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the gerund, declined as a neuter of the second declension in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun overcoming, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows:
[1] Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an accusative.

Nom.    superāre, overcoming, to overcome     INFINITIVE
Gen.    superandī, of overcoming              }
Dat.    superandō,  for overcoming            }
Acc.    superandum, overcoming                } GERUND
Abl.    superandō, by overcoming              }

Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin

Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit

§403. The gerund[2] is formed by adding -ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō, to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below:
[2] The gerund is the neuter singular of the future passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation. (Cf. §374.d.)

PARADIGM OF THE GERUND

        CONJ. I   CONJ. II   CONJ. III              CONJ. IV
Gen.    amandī    monendī    regendī    capiendī    audiendī
Dat.    amandō    monendō    regendō    capiendō    audiendō
Acc.    amandum   monendum   regendum   capiendum   audiendum
Abl.    amandō    monendō    regendō    capiendō    audiendō

a. Give the gerund of cūrō, dēleō, sūmō, iaciō, veniō.

b. Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see §493). Give the gerund of cōnor, vereor, sequor, patior, partior.

§404. The Gerundive. The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate the plan of waging war, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say cōnsilium gerendī bellum; or we may use the gerundive and say cōnsilium bellī gerendī, which means, literally, the plan of the war to be waged, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it.

§405. Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive:

        GERUND                         GERUNDIVE
Gen. Spēs faciendī pācem            Spēs faciendae pācis
Dat. Locus idōneus pugnandō         Locus idōneus castrīs pōnendīs
         A place suitable for          A place suitable for
            fighting                      pitching camp
Acc. Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendum Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendōs
                                           hostīs
         He sent horsemen to pursue     He sent horsemen to pursue
                                           the enemy
Abl. Nārrandō fābulās magister     Nārrandīs fābulīs magister
          puerīs placuit                puerīs placuit
         The teacher pleased the       The teacher pleased the
            boys by telling stories       boys by telling stories

a. We observe

(1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective. (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object. (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun.

§406. RULE. Gerund and Gerundive.

1. The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns.

2. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual.

§407. RULE. Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose. The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with ad, or the genitive with causā[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose.
[3] causā always follows the genitive.

GERUND                        GERUNDIVE
Ad audiendum vēnērunt or    Ad urbem videndam vēnērunt or
  Audiendī causā vēnērunt       Urbis videndae causā vēnērunt
  They came to hear             They came to see the city

NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,--vēnērunt ut audīrent; vēnērunt ut urbem vidērent. In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common.

§408. We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, equus Galbae, Galba’s horse. If, now, we wish to express the idea the horse is Galba’s, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, equus est Galbae. Hence this is called the predicate genitive.

§409. RULE. Predicate Genitive. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of sum, and is then called the predicate genitive.

§410. IDIOMS

alīcui negōtium dare, to employ someone
  (lit. to give business to some one)
novīs rēbus studēre, to be eager for a revolution
  (lit. to be eager for new things)
reī mīlitāris perītissimus, very skillful in the art of war
sē suaque omnia, themselves and all their possessions

fīunt: become, be made, from fio
rudēs: stick, from rudis
pāscēbant: feed, feed on, from pasco
dominī: master, from dominus
cūrābant: arrange, from curo
pecūniam: money, from pecunia
numerābant: count, add up, from numero
Domina: lady of the house, mistress
servās: slave, from serva
vestēs: garment, clothing, from vestis
īnfantem: not speaking, from infans
togam: toga, from toga
nūntius: messenger
vernae: slave born in the master's, from verna
portat: bear, carry, from porto

108
He goes to school for the sake of learning.
109
Slaves who were stronger than the rest often fought in the Circus Maximus.
110
These were called gladiators, because they generally fought with the sword.
111
Most of the gladiators had fair hair and blue eyes; for they were Germans or Britons.
112
They will never see their native land again; for a slave cannot escape.
113
Many of them prefer to fight in the Circus Maximus rather than serve in a Roman villa.
114
Perhaps other gladiators will kill them!
115
This will be the end of slavery.
116
For the sake of seeing this spectacle the Romans used to gather.
117
Often before ten thousand spectators the gladiators killed one another.

causā: cause, reason
gladiātōrēs: gladiator, from gladiator
saepius: often, oft
Plērīque: the majority, most
capillōs: hair, from capillus
effugere: flee, from effugio
mālunt: prefer, from malo
servīre: serve, from servio
servitūtis: slavery, from servitus

118
With what purpose do you sit down at the table?
119
With what purpose do the boys go into the field?
120
With what purpose do we go to the river?
121
With what purpose do you take up a pen?
122
With what purpose did Julius Caesar cross the sea?
123
With what purpose did the farmer and his son go to Rome?
124
With what purpose do pupils come to school?
125
With what purpose do you throw yourself into bed?
126
With what purpose did the Roman put himself behind the wall?
127
With what purpose did Hannibal cross the Alps?

128
With what purpose did Horatius defend the bridge?
129
With what purpose did the Romans gather at the Circus?
130
With what purpose did the verna go to school with Marcus?
131
With what purpose did the messenger run to Rome?
132
With what purpose do you return home from school?
133
With what purpose did the citizens let down a rope from the gate?
134
With what purpose did Horatius leap into the Tiber?
135
If the master orders: 'Open all the windows!' with what purpose do you come from your chair?
136
With what purpose does the master come to school?

dēmīsērunt: drop, let fall, from demitto

Cāsus Ablātivus, the ablative case

The person who needs it

Eīs enim quī labōrant opus est cibō means those who work need food.

Eīs names those who need food.

With opus est, the person who needs something is dative.

The thing needed

Cibō names the food they need.

With opus est, the needed thing is ablative.

Multō labōre opus est means there is need of much labour. Labōre is the needed thing, so it is ablative.

137
We are content with our farm.
138
For the cows provide milk and cheese, the hens and ducks eggs, the cattle meat.
139
The river too, which flows past the villa, is full of fish.
140
All these things we have with no labour, but if we want grain and wine, there is need of much labour.
141
Our slaves, however, look after the farm diligently; for they love their master, because he is both just and kind; for if a slave deserves praise, he receives both praise and a reward, but one who deserves none is punished without delay.
142
At Claudius's, on the other hand, the slaves are wretched; for the master himself lives in Rome, and the bailiff is the most unjust of all men.
143
For he beats the slaves every day, and never gives them enough food.
144
Those who are hungry cannot work well.
145
So Claudius's slaves will not work diligently, and as many as possible run away from the farm.
146
For those who work need food; those too who do not work need food for the sake of living.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LVI, §§315-317

§315. The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses.

COMPARATIVE              SUPERLATIVE
citerior, hither      (citimus, hithermost)
interior, inner       (intimus, inmost)
prior, former          prīmus, first
propior, nearer        proximus, next, nearest
ulterior, further      ultimus, furthest

§316. In the sentence Galba is a head taller than Sextus, the phrase a head taller expresses the measure of difference in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be Galba is taller than Sextus by a head. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the ablative of the measure of difference.

EXAMPLES

Galba est altior capite quam Sextus
  Galba is a head taller (taller by a head) than Sextus.
Illud iter ad Italiam est multō brevius
  That route to Italy is much shorter (shorter by much)

§317. RULE. Ablative of the Measure of Difference. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference.

a. Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives

eō, by this, by that           nihilō,[1] by nothing
hōc, by this                   paulō, by a little
multō, by much
[1] nihil was originally nihilum and declined like pīlum. There is no plural.

§453. The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in English by the prepositions with (or by), from (or by), and in (or at). The constructions growing out of these meanings are

I. Ablative rendered with (or by):
  1. Cause (§102)
  2. Means (§103)
  3. Accompaniment (§104)
  4. Manner (§105)
  5. Measure of difference (§317)
  6. With a participle (ablative absolute) (§381)
  7. Description or quality (§§444, 445)
  8. Specification (§398)

II. Ablative rendered from (or by):
  1. Place from which (§§179, 264)
  2. Ablative of separation (§180)
  3. Personal agent with a passive verb (§181)
  4. Comparison without quam (§309)

III. Ablative rendered in (or at):
  1. Place at or in which (§§265, 266)
  2. Time when or within which (§275)

fundō: sling, from fundus
lāc: basin
cāseum: cheese
praebent: present, from praebeo
piscibus: fish, from piscis
plēnum: full, from plenus
vīnum: wine
cupimus: desire, wish, from cupio
opus: work, task
dīligenter: industriously, diligently
iūstus: just, fair, from justus
benignus: kind, favorable
laude: praise, from laus
dīgnus: appropriate
indīgnus: unworthy, undeserving
poenās: punishment, penalty, from poena
satis: enough, sufficiently
Claudiam: Claudius, from Claudia
aufugiunt: flee, flee from, from aufugio
vīvendī: live, be alive, from vivo

147
With what sort of exercise is the master content?
148
With what sort of slaves is a master content?
149
With what things is the master's table full?
150
With what things is our room full?
151
With what sort of people is our room full?
152
With what things is a bad exercise full?
153
With what animals is a field full? With what birds a farm? With what animals the sea?
154
What do you deserve if you have done your exercise well?
155
What do you deserve if you have done your exercise badly?
156
What do you need for the sake of writing?

157
What limbs do you need for the sake of seeing? And of swimming? And of walking?
158
Why did the slaves gladly stay at Cornelius's?
159
Why did they not stay at Claudius's?
160
Which of our kings was just and kind?
161
Which of our kings was punished because he was unjust?

libenter: willingly, gladly
iniūstus: unjust, wrongful, from injustus

Give the forms: lāc, pecus

162
milk
163
cattle

Give the forms: pecus, carō

164
cattle
165
flesh

Give the forms: laus

166
praise

Verbum Impersōnāle, impersonal verbs

Licet marks the person in the dative

Ōtium igitur agere eī licuit means, "So he was allowed to take a holiday."

Licuit is a past form of licet. Agere names the permitted action, and the dative eī names the person permitted.

The infinitive's subject is accusative

Patrem autem rēs agendī causā Tībur īre oportuit means, "But his father had to go to Tibur to do business."

Īre names the required action. Patrem is its subject, so Patrem is accusative.

167
Marcus was once ill and did not want to go to school.
168
So he was allowed to take a holiday.
169
But his father had to go to Tibur to do business, and Marcus asked him: 'May I come with you, father?
170
For I want to wander in the country and hear the voices of the birds while you do your business in the town.'
171
Cornelius answered: 'If you want to come with me, my son, you may.
172
Hurry, though, because I am ready now.'
173
Soon they were outside the Cornelian estate and, as they went, discussed many things with each other.
174
Suddenly they saw a hare killed on the road, and Marcus said, 'Poor hare!
175
Why do men want to kill animals?' His father said, 'I don't know; the barbarians, though, do this much more than we do, because the animals among them are fiercer; some even devour men.
176
In Africa, as the inhabitants say, the lion, which is called the king of animals, very often enters a village at night and carries off a baby, or, if it is very hungry, even attacks men by force.

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXVII, §§212-216

§212. Learn the principal parts of possum, I am able, I can, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.)

a. Possum, I can, is a compound of potis, able, and sum, I am.

§213. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative. The infinitive (cf. §173) is a verbal noun. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, Is virōs fugere iussit, he commanded the men to flee.

§214. RULE. Subject of the Infinitive. The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.

§215. The Complementary Infinitive. In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls. This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are possum, I am able, I can; properō, mātūrō, I hasten; temptō, I attempt; as

Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt,
  the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls
Bellum gerere mātūrant,
  they hasten to wage war

a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.

Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt, bad boys are not able to (or cannot) be good.

Observe that bonī agrees with puerī.

§216. The Infinitive used as a Noun. In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with est, as

Superāre est grātum, to conquer is pleasing
Vidēre est crēdere, to see is to believe

a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as

Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs,
  for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many

b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence superāre est grātum, the predicate adjective grātum is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with superāre the subject.

aegrōtābat: be sick, from aegroto
licuit: be clear, from liqueo
oportuit: require, order, from oportet
Licetne: it is permitted, one may, from liceo
negōtium: business, affair
parātus: prepare for, prepare, from paro
disserēbant: unfasten, unbar, from dissero
leporem: hare, from lepus
interficere: kill, from interficio
ferōciōra: wild, bold, from ferox
vorant: swallow, devour, from voro
leō: lion
vīcum: village, from vicus
aufert: bear, remove, from aufero
māgnopere: greatly, exceedingly
vī: strength, power, from vis

177
In India lives the tiger, which fears neither men nor wild beasts, except the elephant.
178
Among us too the boar lurks in the depths of the woods; it does not devour human flesh, as the lion and tiger do, but it is very fierce all the same and holds out a long time against the hunters.'
179
What are you not allowed to do while you learn Latin?
180
What must you do while you learn Latin?
181
Where must you work? Where may you play?
182
When will you not be allowed to come to school?
183
Does the hare run fastest of all animals?
184
Which animal is fiercest?
185
What sort of flesh does the tiger gladly devour?
186
When does the lion attack men?

Indīs: India, from Indi
tigris: tiger
ferās: a wild beast, from fera
timet: fear, from timeo
aper: wild boar
hūmānām: human, from humanus

187
How long does the boar hold out against the hunters?
188
From where does the lion often carry off a baby?
189
When were Cornelius and Marcus discussing many things with each other?
190
With what purpose did Cornelius go to Tibur?
191
Where was the town of Tibur?
192
How far was it from Rome?
193
Which wild beasts live in Britain?

Give the forms: leō, tigris

194
lion
195
tiger

Give the forms: tigris, aper

196
tiger
197
boar, wild boar (as animal, food, or used as a Legion standard/symbol)

Give the forms: lepus

198
hare

Futūrum Perfectum, the future perfect

Reaping comes before carrying

Cum segetem messuerimus, tum frūmentum in horreum ferēmus says that the crop is reaped before the grain is carried into the barn.

The future perfect presents an action as completed before another future action. Messuerimus presents the completed reaping before ferēmus presents the carrying.

Three completed future actions

The same contrast appears in Cum pluerit et sōl fulserit, tum plantae tenerae ex humō surgent.

Pluerit and fulserit are future perfect. They present rain and sunshine as completed before surgent presents the plants rising.

Messuerimus, pluerit, and fulserit each present a completed action before another future action.

199
In early spring the farmer was sowing seed in the field, when Marcus happened to come near.
200
He asked the farmer: 'Why is nothing growing in the fields?' He thought a long time about his answer, then answered thus: 'When it has rained and the sun has shone, then tender plants will rise from the ground; in summer the ears will turn yellow; in autumn we shall reap the crop.
201
When we have reaped the crop, then we shall carry the grain into the barn.
202
But while I talk with you, I am idle; and I shall not have sown the whole field before the rain.'
203
Then Marcus said, 'Surely it won't rain?
204
How do you know this?'
205
Then the farmer said, 'There are many signs of rain.
206
Don't you see the swallows?
207
Many are flitting above the river; so there will be heavy showers.
208
Don't you see the crow there?

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson XXXIII, §§194-195

§194.              CONJ. I  CONJ. II  CONJ. III         CONJ. IV
                  amō      moneō     regō    capiō     audiō
  PERFECT STEMS   amāv-    monu-     rēx-    cēp-      audīv-

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN -erā-

SINGULAR
I had loved  I had advised  I had ruled  I had taken  I had heard

1. amā´veram    monu´eram      rē´xeram     cē´peram     audī´veram
2. amā´verās    monu´erās      rē´xerās     cē´perās     audī´verās
3. amā´verat    monu´erat      rē´xerat     cē´perat     audī´verat

   PLURAL
1. amāverā´mus  monuerā´mus    rēxerā´mus   cēperā´mus   audīverā´mus
2. amāverā´tis  monuerā´tis    rēxerā´tis   cēperā´tis   audīverā´tis
3. amā´verant   monu´erant     rē´xerant    cē´perant    audī´verant

FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN -eri-

  SINGULAR
I shall have  I shall have  I shall have  I shall have  I shall have
   loved         advised       ruled         taken         heard

1. amā´verō     monu´erō     rē´xerō       cē´perō       audī´verō
2. amā´veris    monu´eris    rē´xeris      cē´peris      audī´veris
3. amā´verit    monu´erit    rē´xerit      cē´perit      audī´verit

   PLURAL
1. amāve´rimus  monue´rimus  rēxe´rimus    cēpe´rimus    audīve´rimus
2. amāve´ritis  monue´ritis  rēxe´ritis    cēpe´ritis    audīve´ritis
3. amā´verint   monu´erint   rē´xerint     cē´perint     audī´verint

1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here.

2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of dō, portō, dēleō, moveō, habeō, dīcō, discēdō, faciō, veniō, mūniō.

§195. The Perfect Active Infinitive. The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem.

CONJ       PERFECT STEM  PERFECT INFINITIVE
  I.       amāv-         amāvis´se, to have loved
 II.       monu-         monuis´se, to have advised
III. (a) rēx-          rēxis´se, to have ruled
     (b) cēp-          cēpis´se, to have taken
 IV.       audīv        audīvis´se, to have heard
sum        fu-           fuis´se, to have been

1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of dō, portō, dēleō, moveō, habeō, dīcō, discēdō, faciō, veniō, mūniō.

vēre: spring, springtime, from ver
sēmina: seed, from semen
forte: chance, from fors
crēscit: come forth, from cresco
pluerit: rain, from pluo
sōl: sun
fulserit: prop up, support, from fulcio
plantae: cutting, heel, from planta
tenerae: tender, from tener
aestāte: summer, from aestas
aristae: awn, beard of an ear, from arista
autumnō: autumn, from auctumnus
segetem: grain field, from seges
metēmus: reap, from meto
horreum: storehouse
ferēmus: carry, bear, from fero
sermōnem: conversation, discussion, from sermo
cōnferō: bring together, carry
cessō: be remiss
pluviam: rain, shower, from pluvia
sīgna: signal, sign, from signum
hirundinēs: swallow, from hirundo
volitant: fly about, hover over, from volito
imbrēs: rain, shower, from imber
cornīcem: crow, from cornix

209
Look, the crow walks alone here and there on the riverbank and calls for rain with a full voice.
210
Our poet sang this: Then the shameless crow calls for rain with a full voice, and walks alone with herself on the dry sand.
211
These and other things are signs of rain.
212
But look, the surest sign; a dense cloud hangs between us and the sun.
213
Unless you run home as fast as you can, the shower will catch you; I for my part, unless I hurry now, shall not have sown the field before the shower.'
214
When will you go into the field? e.g. When I have done my exercise, I shall go into the field.
215
When will you go back to school?
216
When will the crop grow?
217
When will it rain?
218
When will the master be content?

Poēta: poet
cecinit: sing, celebrate, from cano
improba: wicked, from improbus
siccā: dry, from siccus
spatiātur: walk, from spatior
harēnā: sand, grains of sand
dēnsa: dense, from densus
nūbēs: cloud
equidem: truly, indeed
properābō: hurry, speed up, from propero

219
Which pupil will receive the prize?
220
When will you go to sleep?
221
When will Marcus be a man?
222
When will the farmers carry the grain into the barn?
223
When will the tender plants rise from the ground?
224
When will you be content?
225
When will you be able to speak Latin well?
226
With whom was Marcus talking?
227
With what things is the sky often full?
228
At what time of year do the swallows return to Britain?

229
What are the four seasons of the year?
230
At what time of year do farmers sow? reap? not work?
231
At what time of year does it rain most?
232
What is that poet called who sang about the crow?
233
While you come to school with a friend, what do you do the whole way?
234
About what things do you talk with this friend?
235
When does the sun not shine?
236
In winter what lies on the ground?
237
Where do the swallows fly in autumn?
238
Why do farmers not love crows?
239
Write the names of the birds you know.
240
What do you see in the sky now?

fulget: flash, shine, from fulgeo
Hieme: winter, from hiems