Dutch Conversation-Grammar, Lessons 43 to 45

Lesson 43: Formation of verbs: the prefix be-

Be at the front of a verb

Dutch makes new verbs with six prefixes: be, er, her, ge, ont and ver. Be is the first.

In a few verbs be keeps its old sense of at, by or near. Belenden means to border on.

Be also makes a transitive verb from an intransitive one. Bewenen means to bewail. It makes verbs from nouns too, as in bevolken, to people.

What be does to a meaning

Before some transitive verbs be changes or strengthens the meaning. Beroven means to rob.

In a few intransitive verbs be marks the start of an action. Bevriezen means to freeze.

Learn each be verb as one word with its own meaning.

A few from the list

1
to belong (to)
behorento belong (to)
2
to arrive (at)
3
to border (on)
4
to submit to
5
to tread upon

Formation of verbs: the prefix be-

The prefixes by means of which verbs are formed are: be, er, her, ge, ont and ver.

Be (= bij) has its original meaning of: at, by, near, on, to, upon in a few verbs. Be also forms transitive verbs from intransitive ones, and transitive verbs from nouns whose primitive word is not itself used as a verb; before some transitive verbs be alters or strengthens the meaning, and in a few intransitive verbs be denotes the beginning of an action.

A few from the list
behoren              to belong (to)
belanden             to arrive (at)
belenden             to border (on)
berusten             to submit to
begaan               to tread upon
bespringen           to attack
betreuren            to lament
bevaren              to navigate
bewenen              to bewail
bekransen            to wreathe

Er and her

Er occurs in verbs borrowed from German only. By prefixing an h to er a new prefix her was formed, which belongs to Dutch alone and is entirely absent from German; it forms a large family of verbs meaning to do something again or over.

A few from the list
erachten             (mijns erachtens) in my opinion
zich erbarmen        to have mercy upon
erkennen             to acknowledge
erlangen             to acquire
ervaren              to experience
herinneren           to remember
herademen            to breathe again
herbakken            to rebake
herbouwen            to rebuild
herdenken            to commemorate

Ge

Ge alters the meaning of the primitive word slightly, or in some verbs not at all; several verbs exist in both a plain and a ge- form with the same sense.

Ont

Ont has the meaning of tegen, terug (against, back) in some verbs; in others it means bringing into a new condition, in others it denotes a bereaving or depriving, and from that last meaning follows the sense of away.

A few from the list
onthouden            to withhold
ontmoeten            to meet
ontraden             to dissuade from
ontzeggen            to deny
ontzien              to respect
ontbranden           to take fire
ontdooien            to thaw
ontruimen            to evacuate
ontslapen            to expire
ontspruiten          to bud forth

Ver

Ver denotes the opposite of what the primitive word expresses, or evil, false, wrong; a destruction or loss by means of the action; a change or transition; or a covering or secluding.

A few from the list
verachten            to despise
verbeuren            to lose
verdenken            to suspect
vergissen            to err
verleiden            to seduce
verbranden           to reduce to ashes
verbrijzelen         to crush
verdrinken           to spend on drink (also to drown)
vermoorden           to murder
verslapen            to oversleep oneself

Suffixes: el, er, ig and eer(en)

The suffixes by means of which verbs were formed or may be formed are: el, er, ig and the foreign suffix eer; nowadays verbs are generally formed from their primitive word without any suffix.

Verbs formed from nouns denote an action explained by the meaning of the primitive word.

Verbs formed from adjectives denote causation, that someone or something acquires the quality the adjective expresses, or being or becoming what the adjective expresses.

Some verbs are formed from nouns or adjectives by means of ig, sometimes with a prefix; these are not to be confused with verbs formed from adjectives that already end in ig.

The suffix eer(en) was borrowed along with foreign words such as dineren, to dine, and trakteren, to treat, and was then used to form verbs from Dutch nouns and adjectives too.

A few from the list
boeren               to farm
blozen               to blush
doppen               to shell
herbergen            to lodge
huizen               to lodge or to live (with)
kleden               to dress
pakken               to pack up
ploegen              to plough
vissen               to fish
dartelen             to frolic

Suffixes el, er: frequentative and intensive verbs

Verbs were originally formed from nouns or adjectives ending in el or er, some of which have since fallen out of use. Later, many verbs were formed by adding the suffixes el, er to a verbal root; these denote the repetition of the action named in the root word, and are usually called Frequentative Verbs.

The Intensive Verbs stand beside other verbs but with a strengthened meaning; the root vowel has become short, hence the doubling of the final consonant. Some of these have also acquired a frequentative ending.

A few from the list
roosteren            to roast
schilderen           to paint
waggelen             to stagger
wandelen             to walk
wankelen             to waver
weigeren             to refuse
duikelen             to dive
klapperen            to chatter
krabbelen            to scratch
schuifelen           to shuffle

Causative verbs

The causative verbs are formed from the roots of strong verbs by vowel change: they cause the state or action of the strong verb to come about.

Verbs formed from particles

The verb mijnen, to buy at a public sale by calling 'mine', is formed from the possessive pronoun mijn; the following verbs are formed from particles.

Composition: verbal root with a body-part noun

The rules for the formation of compound verbs were already given in Lesson 22; here we mention only the peculiar formation of some verbs consisting of a verbal root with a noun for a part of the body. These compounds depart from the general rules for compounds and are used in colloquial Dutch with a comical meaning.

6
to attack
7
to lament
8
to navigate
9
to bewail
10
to wreathe

11
to burden
12
to people
13
to benefit
14
to satisfy

Lesson 43: Er and her

Er from German, her for again

Er comes only in verbs that Dutch borrowed from German. Erkennen, to acknowledge, is one. Ervaren, to experience, is another.

Dutch added an h to er and made her. Her belongs to Dutch alone. German does not have it.

Her forms a large family of verbs. They mean to do something again or over. Herbouwen is to rebuild. Herlezen is to read over again. Hernieuwen is to renew.

Er and her

Er occurs in verbs borrowed from German only. By prefixing an h to er a new prefix her was formed, which belongs to Dutch alone and is entirely absent from German; it forms a large family of verbs meaning to do something again or over.

15
(mijns erachtens) in my opinion
16
to have mercy upon
17
to acknowledge
18
to acquire
19
to experience

20
to remember
21
to breathe again
22
to rebake
23
to rebuild
24
to commemorate

25
to do over again
26
to rebaptize
27
to reprint
28
to reunite

Lesson 43: Ge

Ge changes little

Ge alters the meaning of the base word slightly. In some verbs it alters nothing.

Several verbs exist in two forms with the same sense, one plain and one with ge. Lukken and gelukken both mean to succeed. Lijken and gelijken both mean to resemble.

Other ge verbs stand alone. Gebeuren means to happen. Geloven means to believe.

29
to happen
30
to happen
31
to behave
32
to believe
33
to approach

34
to mention
35
to resemble
36
to resemble
37
to succeed
38
to succeed

39
to feel
40
to feel
41
to gain
42
to gain

Lesson 43: Ont

Meanings of ont

In some verbs ont means against or back. Ontzeggen is to deny. In others it brings something into a new condition. Ontdooien is to thaw.

In others it takes something away from someone. Ontadelen is to deprive of nobility. Ontsluiten is to unlock.

From that last sense comes the plain sense of away. Ontglippen is to escape or drop.

Ont

Ont has the meaning of tegen, terug (against, back) in some verbs; in others it means bringing into a new condition, in others it denotes a bereaving or depriving, and from that last meaning follows the sense of away.

43
to withhold
44
to meet
45
to dissuade from
46
to deny
47
to respect

48
to take fire
49
to thaw
50
to evacuate
51
to expire
52
to bud forth

53
to embezzle
54
to deprive of nobility
55
to dissolve
56
to uncover or discover

Lesson 43: Ver

Meanings of ver

Ver can give the opposite of the base word, or mean evil, false or wrong. Verachten is to despise. Vergissen is to err.

It can mean destruction or loss through the action. Verbranden is to reduce to ashes. Verspelen is to lose in playing.

It can mean a change. Verkleden is to change one's dress. It can also mean covering. Verzegelen is to seal.

Ver

Ver denotes the opposite of what the primitive word expresses, or evil, false, wrong; a destruction or loss by means of the action; a change or transition; or a covering or secluding.

57
to despise
58
to lose
59
to suspect
60
to err
61
to seduce

62
to reduce to ashes
63
to crush
64
to spend on drink (also to drown)
65
to murder
66
to oversleep oneself

67
to lose in playing
68
to evaporate
69
to change beds
70
to remove

Lesson 43: Suffixes: el, er, ig and eer(en)

Suffixes that make verbs

Verbs were once made with the suffixes el, er, ig and the foreign eer. Today most verbs are made from the base word with no suffix at all.

A verb made from a noun names an action that the noun explains. Boeren is to farm. Ploegen is to plough.

Verbs from adjectives and with ig or eer

A verb made from an adjective means to cause the quality, to gain it or to be it. Sterken is to strengthen. Groenen is to become green.

Some verbs are made from nouns or adjectives with ig, as in eindigen, to finish. Do not confuse these with verbs made from adjectives that already end in ig.

Eer came in with foreign words such as dineren, to dine. Dutch then used it on its own nouns and adjectives. Halveren is to halve.

Suffixes: el, er, ig and eer(en)

The suffix eer(en) was borrowed along with foreign words such as dineren, to dine, and trakteren, to treat, and was then used to form verbs from Dutch nouns and adjectives too.

71
to farm
72
to shell
73
to lodge or to live (with)
74
to pack up
75
to fish

76
to kill
77
to point
78
to strengthen
79
to whitewash
80
to finish

81
to stone
82
to satisfy or pacify
83
to secure
84
to justify

Lesson 43: Suffixes el, er: frequentative and intensive verbs

Verbs of repeated action

A frequentative verb names an action that repeats. It is made by adding el or er to a verb root.

Wandelen is to walk. Krabbelen is to scratch. Schuifelen is to shuffle.

The first verbs with el or er were made from nouns or adjectives that ended in el or er. Some of those words are no longer used.

Verbs of strengthened meaning

An intensive verb stands beside another verb and strengthens its meaning.

The root vowel has become short, so the last consonant is doubled. Bukken is to bow or stoop. Hikken is to hiccough.

Some of these also carry a frequentative ending, as in knabbelen, to nibble.

85
to roast
86
to paint
87
to stagger
88
to walk
89
to waver

90
to refuse
91
to dive
92
to chatter
93
to scratch
94
to shuffle

95
to welter or wallow
96
to bow or stoop
97
to hiccough
98
to stitch

Lesson 43: Causative verbs

Verbs that make something happen

A causative verb is made from the root of a strong verb by a change of vowel. It causes the action of the strong verb to come about.

Zitten means to sit. Zetten means to set, which makes something sit. Liggen means to lie. Leggen means to lay, which makes something lie.

Vallen means to fall. Vellen means to fell, which makes something fall.

99
to drench or water (from drank – drinken)
100
to allow (hang – hangen)
101
to cleave (kloof – klieven)
102
to lay (lag – liggen)
103
to lead (leed – lijden)

104
to incline (neeg – nijgen)
105
to fell (val – vallen)
106
to convey (voer – varen)
107
to turn (wand – winden)
108
to set (zat – zitten)
109
to suckle (zoog – zuigen)

Lesson 43: Verbs formed from particles

Verbs from small words

A few verbs are formed from particles, small words that are not nouns, adjectives or verbs.

Naderen is to approach. Uiten is to utter. Veroveren is to conquer.

One verb comes from mijn, the word for my. Mijnen means to buy at a public sale by calling mine.

110
to buy at a public sale by calling 'mine'
111
to treat
112
to promote
113
to gather
114
to approach

115
to propose
116
to utter
117
to humble
118
to conquer

Lesson 43: Composition: verbal root with a body-part noun

Verbs with a body part in them

A few compound verbs join a verb root to a noun for a part of the body. They break the usual rules for compounds.

Everyday Dutch uses them with a comical meaning. Knipogen means to wink. Stampvoeten means to stamp one's feet. Klappertanden means to chatter one's teeth.

Treat each one as a single verb with its own meaning.

119
to be abashed or sneak away
120
to chatter (one's teeth)
121
to clap the wings
122
to gnash the teeth
123
to nod or doze

124
to wink
125
to clip (the wings)
126
to catch each other by the hair
127
to long for
128
to hesitate

129
to stamp (one's feet)
130
to grow giddy
131
to bill or coo

De poppenkast (vervolg)

132
The puppet show (continued)
133
And that rich scene with the box, in which, after a violent domestic quarrel, Katrijn is shoved, after which he sells the box to the Jew, who, to his terrible fright, as he wants to carry his bargain home, suddenly sees Katrijn coming out halfway.
134
At the moment when he wants to pull her out further, Jan Klaassen approaches him from behind and in a flash stuffs him in there too, jumps in triumph onto the box and stays in that position, despite the hopeless attempts of the prisoners, who keep banging the lid up and down.
135
I do not even want to speak here of the scenes with the black devil with his pointed tongue of red cloth, or of the white Pierlala, who does not speak, but only lets his mysterious “brrrrrrie! brrrrrrie!” be heard, which the performer knows how to produce by blowing on two flat little strips of whalebone, which he clamps together between his lips, that strange figure, which, at the moment when Jan Klaassen has picked up his right leg with both his hands to charge at the strange fellow who bothers him with his eternal “brrrrrrie!”, suddenly grows to an unheard-of length that sticks out far above the top of the theatre.

Lesson 43: exercise 120

136
bibberen
beven
137
blozen
blos
138
bukken
buigen
139
doden
dood
140
dribbelen
drijven
141
drenken
drinken
142
eindigen
einde

143
halveren
half
144
heiligen
heilig
145
herbergen
herberg
146
huizen
huis
147
jakkeren
jagen
148
kabbelen
kauwen
149
klapperen
klappen

150
kleden
kleed
151
kloven
klieven
152
verkondigen
kond
153
leggen
liggen
154
leiden
lijden
155
naderen
nader
156
neigen
nijgen

157
veroveren
over
158
ploegen
ploeg
159
richten
recht
160
reinigen
rein
161
rotten
rot
162
schuifelen
schuiven
163
verspillen
spelen

164
stikken
steken
165
stofferen
stof
166
trotseren
trots
167
vervaardigen
vaardig
168
vellen
vallen
169
vestigen
vast
170
vissen
vis

171
bevredigen
vrede
172
waarderen
waarde
173
wentelen
wenden
174
witten
wit
175
zogen
zuigen

Lesson 43: exercise 121

176
to acknowledge
177
to acquire
178
to approach
179
to arrive at
180
to attack
181
to avoid
182
to be abashed

183
to behave
184
to believe
185
to belong to
186
to benefit
187
to bewail
188
to bill (coo)
189
to border on

190
to borrow
191
to breathe again
192
to burden
193
to catch each other by the hair
194
to celebrate
195
to change beds
196
to chatter (one's teeth)

197
to clarify
198
to clip the wings
199
to comprise
200
to confide in
201
to cool
202
to crush
203
to deny

204
to deprive of nobility
205
to despise
206
to diminish
207
to dine
208
to discover
209
to disguise
210
to dissolve

211
to dissuade from
212
to do over again
213
to embezzle
214
to err
215
to escape
216
to evacuate
217
to evaporate

218
to experience
219
to expire
220
to feel
221
to flap the wings
222
to fortify
223
to freeze
224
to gain

225
to gnash the teeth
226
to grow giddy
227
to happen
228
to have mercy upon
229
to humiliate
230
to hesitate
231
to lament

232
to long for
233
to lose
234
to lose by sleeping
235
to lose in playing

Lesson 43: exercise 122

236
to meet
237
to mention
238
to model
239
to murder
240
to navigate
241
to nod
242
to open

243
to paint
244
to people
245
to petrify
246
to plant
247
to prune
248
to read over again
249
to rebake

250
to rebaptize
251
to rebuild
252
to recall
253
to recognize
254
to reduce to ashes
255
to reform
256
to refuse

257
to remember
258
to remove
259
to renew
260
to repeat
261
to reprint
262
to resemble
263
to return to life

264
to reunite
265
to revise
266
to rob
267
to ruminate
268
to satisfy
269
to seal
270
to seduce

271
to seize
272
to shun
273
to slip out of
274
to sow
275
to spend on drink
276
to spike
277
to sprout

278
to stamp
279
to succeed
280
to suspect
281
to take fire
282
to thaw
283
to tie
284
to tread upon

285
to treat
286
to unbolt
287
to unlock
288
to walk
289
to wink
290
to withhold
291
to wreathe

Lesson 43: exercise 123

292
How came you to venture back here?
293
This old mother of mine was longing so to see me; and then Katerina, she has waited all this time for me, dear girl!
294
If only I were not so poor!
295
But next year, if I have luck at my trade in Van Block's, I may be able to make a run back and marry her, and then get my old mother persuaded to come along with us.
296
I could get a pretty sum just now by informing on a deserter.
297
Pray don't joke on that subject, Peter! I know you are only joking, but it frightens mother.

298
Well, Peter, it is a pleasure to have seen you again! I am going off to-night, any message to the old set?
299
(A loud knock at the door. He peeps through the window.) Soldiers, and an officer with them! What can it mean? Peter, excuse me, I must disappear.
300
Stay! I assure you it is not you they want. They are friends of mine.
301
Oh, in that case I may remain. But, do you know, one of those fellows looks wonderfully like my old commander?
302
Enter Officer. An important despatch from St. Petersburg, your Majesty, requiring your instant attention.
303
Majesty!
304
Majesty! Peter, what does this man mean?

305
Down, sir! do you not know who this is? Down on your knees to Peter the Great, Czar of Russia!
306
(falling on her knees). Oh, your Majesty! your Majesty! have mercy on my poor boy! he is my only son! he did not know what he was doing!
307
Nonsense, mother! This is only one of Peter's jokes. Ha! ha! ha! keep it up, Peter! It's very good.
308
You impudent rascal! let me look at you more closely; I think we have met before. Soldiers, arrest this fellow! he is a deserter!
309
(with a gesture of despair). It's all over with me now! O Peter, Peter! can you not help an old comrade? How can you go on reading so composedly?

310
(wringing her hands). O good Mr. Officer, spare my boy!
311
He must go before a court-martial. He ought to be shot.
312
(looks up suddenly from reading the despatch). Officer, I have occasion for the services of your prisoner. Release him.
313
Your Majesty's will is absolute.
314
(aside). Majesty again! What does it all mean? A light breaks in upon me. There were rumours in Holland, when I left, that the Czar had been working in one of the ship-yards. Can my Peter be the Emperor?
315
Stanmitz, you have my secret now.
316
And you are,

317
The Czar. (S. falls on his knees.) Rise, my friend! Rise, old woman; your son, Baron Stanmitz, is safe.
318
Baron Stanmitz!
319
I require his services to superintend my shipbuilding yard at St. Petersburg. You must both prepare to leave for the new city at once. Michael, make your Katerina a baroness to-morrow, and bring her with you.

320
Hush, no thanks! I have urgent business claiming my care, so I cannot attend the wedding. Here is a purse of ducats. One of my secretaries will call with orders in the morning. Farewell!
321
O Peter! Peter! I mean your Majesty! your Majesty! I'm so completely bewildered, I do not know what to say, or how to thank you! Forgive me, your Majesty! friend Peter! I'm surely in a dream!
322
Ha! ha! good-bye, old comrade! We shall meet again soon. Commend me to your Katerina. (Exit.)

323
Mr. Officer, when do you think that court-martial you spoke of is likely to be held?
324
Baron, I take my leave. I hope you will speak a good word for me to his Majesty, when you have an opportunity.
325
Now for Katerina! What a story I have to tell her!

Lesson 44: Formation of numerals

Old sound changes in number words

Some Dutch number words look odd because their sounds changed long ago. The book lists these changes so the odd spellings make sense.

Twintig has an extra n. Dertien and dertig come from an old form of drie. Veertien and veertig come from vier, with the vowel changed.

Vijftig, zestig and zeventig come from vijf, zes and zeven. The old sound changed, but the written letters stayed.

Geen was made from a word for not and een. It means no or not a.

326
no, not a
327
twenty
328
thirteen
329
thirty
330
fourteen

Formation of numerals

The indefinite numeral geen was formed from neg (not) and een. Several of the cardinal numbers show old sound-changes: an inserted n and e changed to i gave twintig; dre, an old form of drie without its ending, gives dertien and dertig; ie changed to ee gives veertien and veertig beside vier; an old form antachtig, shortened through entachtig and etachtig, gives tachtig; and v and z changed to f and s under the influence of the old prefix ant gave veertig, vijftig, zestig, zeventig from vier, vijf, zes, zeven, though v and z are still written.

Adverbs formed from the pronoun roots hij, die, wie

From the roots of the pronouns hij, die, wie a whole family of place and time adverbs was formed; a few of the directional forms in -waarts are used very seldom nowadays, and the old genitive of die survives as an adverb in a few words.

A few from the list
hier                 here
heen                 away, to there
henen                away (old form of heen)
daar                 there
der                  there (old, in compounds)
er                   there, of it
vandaan              from there
dan                  then
toch                 yet, still
toen                 then, at that time

The old adjective ending -e, the suffix -lijk, and adverbs from the accusative

The old ending e that formed adverbs from adjectives survives in only a few words; elsewhere it was dropped, so many adverbs have the same form as the adjective, and later still more adjectives, and even participles, came to be used as adverbs in this way. Such adverbs can still be told apart from the adjective by adding lijk.

Because a noun in the accusative could serve as an adverbial adjunct of time, value and so on, a few of these nouns became true adverbs.

A few from the list
alreede              already (archaic)
dichtbij             close by (archaic dichte bij)
luide                loudly (archaic)
verre                far (archaic)
verleden             lately
volmaakt             completely
voortdurend          continually
razend knap          extremely clever
gloeiend mooi        awfully nice
kokend heet          boiling hot

Adverbs formed from the dative and genitive, and their compounds

Some nouns in the dative became adverbs too. The genitive was originally the case in which many words served as adverbial expressions, so nouns, adjectives, participles and one numeral all supply adverbs this way; some compounds join an adjective and a noun with the genitive ending, and feminine nouns joined with adjectives used figuratively keep that ending as well, while the same nouns used in their literal sense are written as two words. The word wijze, manner, has also been compounded with nouns in the genitive, or strengthened further with ge-.

A few from the list
heinde               near (heinde en verre)
midden               middle (still in middag)
vaak                 often
wijlen               the late, deceased
mijnentwege          for my part, on my behalf
onzenthalve          for our sake
daags                by day
deels                partly
steeds               always, still
's avonds            in the evening

The -s suffix

Once the old genitive form of the adverb was no longer felt as a genitive, the s came to be taken simply as a suffix that forms adverbs, and it was then added even to words that had no genitive or dative s to begin with, and to nouns and adjectives already carrying a preposition; in some words the preposition itself took the s, and the endings lijks, lings and waarts work the same way.

A few from the list
overigens            besides, moreover
trouwens             besides, in fact
minstens             at least
altoos               always (archaic)
dikwijls             often
somtijds             sometimes
achterbaks           behind one's back, underhandedly
bijkans              almost, nearly
omstreeks            around, about
thans                now, at present

Compound adverbs formed from two adverbs

Compound adverbs may be formed from two adverbs, and the same holds for a further set of combinations and for the pronominal adverbs vandaar, vanhier, vanwaar used figuratively.

A few from the list
evenzeer             equally, just as much
hoeveel              how much
hoeverre             how far
zolang               as long as
zoveel               so much
zoverre              so far
weleer               formerly
achterover           backward
bijna                almost
bovenaan             at the top

Adverbs formed from a preposition with a noun, adjective, or numeral

Compounds of a preposition with a noun, or with an adjective in a figurative sense, form one set of adverbs, and a preposition with an adjective used as a noun forms another.

Some compound adverbs are formed from a preposition with the numeral al or een, which have taken on the character of adverbs in these compounds.

A few from the list
bijgeval             by chance
integendeel          on the contrary
omtrent              around, about
onderweg             on the way
onderwijl            meanwhile
overeind             upright
overhoop             in a heap, at odds
terug                back
voorhanden           available
weg                  away

Formation of prepositions

The root words of the prepositions were originally the same as those of the adverbs; tot and van are compounds.

Some prepositions are derived from adverbs by means of ter, er, en, others carry the prefix be-, tegen is formed from te and jegen with an adverbial s and has been compounded once more with over in tegenover, and naast is the superlative of the adverb na.

Adjectives used adverbially have become prepositions in langs and tussen; nouns in the dative with an adverbial s, nouns in the genitive, and nouns joined with a preposition all supply further prepositions.

Participles, with or without an added s, have also become prepositions.

A few from the list
aan                  on, to
bij                  by, at
door                 through
in                   in
na                   after
om                   around, for
op                   on
uit                  out of
voor                 for, before
met                  with

Formation of conjunctions

Of the coordinating conjunctions, only en, of and noch were used exclusively as conjunctions in old Dutch; the clause they join keeps the ordinary word order, as do want, doch and maar; every other coordinating conjunction began life as an adverb.

The subordinating conjunction of, meaning if, is not the same word as the coordinating of, meaning or; it is the only one used exclusively as a conjunction in old Dutch. In ofschoon, the schoon only strengthens the meaning.

A pronominal root lies behind zo, meaning if, which is also an adverb; from it, by way of alzo, came als, meaning if, used only as a conjunction, also in zodra als.

Several interrogative adverbs have become true conjunctions, among them the compounds hoewel and hoezeer.

A number of subordinating conjunctions are formed from an adverb and dat; several of these may drop the dat, at which point the plain adverb itself has become a conjunction.

Several conjunctions were originally a preposition with the dative or accusative singular neuter of the demonstrative pronoun, followed by dat; some became conjunctions once dat was dropped, of others the demonstrative pronoun itself was dropped, and dat can even be dropped from the preposition-based forms.

On the same pattern, some participles have become conjunctions; several of these need dat to function as a conjunction at all, and lose that function if dat is left out, while a few are generally used without dat.

A few from the list
en                   and
of                   or
noch                 nor
want                 because, for
doch                 yet, however
maar                 but
wel is waar          it is true
of                   if (subordinating)
ofschoon             although
zo                   if

331
forty
332
eighty
333
fifty
334
sixty
335
seventy

Lesson 44: Adverbs formed from the pronoun roots hij, die, wie

A family of place and time adverbs

Dutch made a whole family of place and time adverbs from the old roots of hij, die and wie.

Some name a place: hier means here, and daar means there. Some name a time: dan and toen both mean then. Some ask: waar means where, wanneer means when, hoe means how.

A few forms are old. Herwaarts, derwaarts and werwaarts are archaic and used very seldom now.

Adverbs formed from the pronoun roots hij, die, wie

From the roots of the pronouns hij, die, wie a whole family of place and time adverbs was formed; a few of the directional forms in -waarts are used very seldom nowadays, and the old genitive of die survives as an adverb in a few words.

336
here
337
away, to there
338
away (old form of heen)
339
there
340
there (old, in compounds)

341
there, of it
342
from there
343
then
344
yet, still
345
then, at that time

346
where
347
when
348
how
349
hither (archaic)

Lesson 44: The old adjective ending -e, the suffix -lijk, and adverbs from the accusative

Adjectives that work as adverbs

Dutch once made adverbs by adding e to an adjective. That e survives in only a few words, such as alreede and luide.

Elsewhere the e was dropped. So most adverbs have the same form as the adjective. Voortdurend means continually, and kokend heet means boiling hot.

Adding the suffix lijk tells such an adverb apart from the adjective. Gewoonlijk means usually, and waarlijk means truly.

Nouns that became adverbs

A noun in the accusative could tell the time or the value of an action. A few such nouns became true adverbs.

Altijd means always. Eenmaal means once.

350
already (archaic)
351
close by (archaic dichte bij)
352
loudly (archaic)
353
far (archaic)
354
lately

355
completely
356
continually
357
extremely clever
358
awfully nice
359
boiling hot

360
equally
361
commonly
362
surely
363
usually

Lesson 44: Adverbs formed from the dative and genitive, and their compounds

Adverbs with an old case ending

Many Dutch adverbs began as nouns or adjectives in an old case. A few came from the dative. Most came from the genitive, the old case for adverb expressions.

Many of these end in s, the old genitive ending. Deels means partly, anders means otherwise, and onlangs means recently.

Some are time words with 's in front: 's avonds means in the evening, and 's nachts means at night.

The list is long. Each line gives a Dutch adverb and its meaning. Words marked archaic, such as stillekens, quietly, are old forms.

364
near (heinde en verre)
365
the late, deceased
366
by day
367
in the evening
368
otherwise

369
already
370
neatly
371
gently
372
unexpectedly
373
subsequently

374
once
375
bareheaded
376
for the most part
377
by force of arms

Lesson 44: The -s suffix

S as a suffix for adverbs

At first the s of these adverbs was an old genitive ending. Later speakers no longer felt it as one.

The s then became a plain suffix that makes adverbs. It was added even to words that never had a genitive or dative s.

Minstens means at least. Dagelijks means daily. Tevens means at the same time.

The endings lijks, lings and waarts work the same way.

378
besides, moreover
379
besides, in fact
380
at least
381
always (archaic)
382
often

383
sometimes
384
behind one's back, underhandedly
385
almost, nearly
386
around, about
387
now, at present

388
in passing
389
hereafter (archaic)
390
formerly
391
of a mind to (archaic)

Lesson 44: Compound adverbs formed from two adverbs

Two adverbs joined in one word

Two adverbs can join to make one new adverb. Read each part, then the whole.

Bovenop is boven and op, and means on top. Rechtsaf means to the right. Zolang means as long as.

Vandaar, vanhier and vanwaar also join in this way. They can be used figuratively. Vandaar means from there, or hence.

Compound adverbs formed from two adverbs

Compound adverbs may be formed from two adverbs, and the same holds for a further set of combinations and for the pronominal adverbs vandaar, vanhier, vanwaar used figuratively.

392
equally, just as much
393
how much
394
how far
395
as long as
396
so much

397
so far
398
formerly
399
backward
400
almost
401
at the top

402
on top
403
curtly
404
underneath
405
at the bottom

Lesson 44: Adverbs formed from a preposition with a noun, adjective, or numeral

A preposition joined to another word

A preposition can join a noun, an adjective or a number word. The result is an adverb.

Onderweg means on the way. Opnieuw means again. Voorgoed means for good.

Two number words, al and een, join prepositions in this way. Overal means everywhere. Bijeen means together.

Adverbs formed from a preposition with a noun, adjective, or numeral

Compounds of a preposition with a noun, or with an adjective in a figurative sense, form one set of adverbs, and a preposition with an adjective used as a noun forms another.

Some compound adverbs are formed from a preposition with the numeral al or een, which have taken on the character of adverbs in these compounds.

406
by chance
407
around, about
408
meanwhile
409
in a heap, at odds
410
available

411
quick-witted
412
again
413
long ago (archaic)
414
at the same time
415
rightly, justly

416
long ago (archaic)
417
surely, certainly
418
in a row, successively
419
gradually

Lesson 44: Formation of prepositions

Where prepositions come from

The first prepositions had the same roots as the adverbs. Tot and van are compounds.

Later prepositions came from other words. Naast is the superlative of the adverb na. Tegenover is tegen and over joined.

Adjectives gave langs and tussen. Participles gave tijdens, meaning during.

Reading the list of prepositions

Each line gives a preposition and its meaning. Aan means on or to. Wegens means because of.

Some words are marked archaic, such as nevens, next to.

420
on, to
421
in
422
on
423
with
424
of, from

425
under
426
without
427
above
428
opposite
429
between

430
because of
431
except
432
next to (archaic)
433
concerning

Lesson 44: Formation of conjunctions

Old conjunctions and new ones

In old Dutch, en, of and noch were the only coordinating conjunctions that were never anything else. After them the clause keeps its ordinary word order, as it does after want, doch and maar.

Every other coordinating conjunction began as an adverb.

The subordinating conjunction of means if. It is not the coordinating of, which means or.

Conjunctions built with dat

Many subordinating conjunctions are an adverb plus dat. Zodat means so that. Omdat means because.

Several may drop the dat. The plain adverb itself then works as a conjunction. Hoewel means although.

Some conjunctions began as a preposition with dat, such as zonder dat, meaning without. Some participles also became conjunctions, and several need dat to work as one.

Formation of conjunctions

On the same pattern, some participles have become conjunctions; several of these need dat to function as a conjunction at all, and lose that function if dat is left out, while a few are generally used without dat.

434
and
435
because, for
436
it is true
437
if
438
why, for which reason

439
however
440
so that
441
than
442
since
443
seeing that (archaic)

444
while
445
because
446
because
447
according as

De poppenkast (slot)

448
The puppet show (conclusion)
449
There are still a great many other scenes, which you all know, such as that of the cradle-rocking, of the knife-grinder, etc., where he is everywhere the main character, everywhere equally great, everywhere victorious by cunning or by force, where everywhere the wooden heads clash violently against each other, and through which everywhere cheering and jubilation is stirred up.
450
In short, for I must put an end to expressing my feeling, though it is hard for me, I admit it, because the matter is close to my heart, this I only hope, whatever may go forward in the world, if it must be so after all, that they will leave my old friend at his original worth.
451
Do not embellish him, do not adorn him, do not try to improve him, do not extend your philanthropy over him; make revolutions as much as you like, make the whole world into a republic, but leave him on his throne, and grant us, who are still a little of the old time, that at the last fair we may still live to see, we can at least still see one thing that is still exactly as it was in our young years, leave me that one comfort, that I have not amused myself for thirty years with something at which a toddler of five, when I shall be an old man, will turn up his nose, because Jan Klaassen and Katrijn do not conform to the rules of his artistic taste.
452
Lodewijk Mulder.

Lesson 44: exercise 124

453
anders
ander
454
's avonds
avond
455
blindelings
blind
456
boogswijze
boog
457
deels
deel
458
dichtbij
dicht
459
eens
een

460
gelijkelijk
gelijk
461
gemeenlijk
gemeen
462
gevallig
geval
463
gewoonlijk
gewoon
464
gloeiend mooi
gloeien
465
eershalve
half
466
gewapenderhand
hand

467
heuschelijk
heusch
468
overhoop
hoop
469
kantig
kant
470
eerlang
lang
471
terloops
loop
472
overluid
luid
473
midden door
mid

474
's morgens
morgen
475
's nachts
nacht
476
netjes
net
477
terecht
recht
478
slechts
slecht
479
stillekens
stil
480
straks
strak

481
omstreeks
streek
482
stuksgewijze
stuk
483
vaak
vak
484
verre
ver
485
volmaakt
volmaken
486
voortdurend
voortduren
487
waarlijk
waar

488
warmpjes
warm
489
mijnentwege
weg
490
zachtjes
zacht
491
zekerlijk
zeker
492
alleszins
zin

Lesson 44: exercise 125

493
aangaande
aangaan
494
behoudens
behouden
495
gedurende
duren
496
ingevolge
gevolg
497
binnen
in
498
jegens
jegen
499
krachtens
kracht

500
langs
lang
501
naar
na
502
nopens
nopen
503
ondanks
ondank
504
omstreeks
streek
505
niettegenstaande
tegenstaan
506
tijdens
tijd

507
buiten
uit
508
volgens
volgen
509
wegens
weg
510
bezijden
zijde

Lesson 44: exercise 126

511
behalve dat
behalve
512
dan dat
dan
513
bijaldien
dien
514
doordat
door
515
ten einde
einde
516
nademaal
maal
517
overmits
mits

518
waarom
om
519
opdat
op
520
sedert dat
sedert
521
sinds dat
sinds
522
terwijl
wijl
523
zonder dat
zonder
524
zodat
zoo

Lesson 44: exercise 127

525
Rotterdam, 1st February, 1912. Gentlemen,
526
I beg leave to inform you that I have to-day established a Wine Trade in this city, which I shall conduct on my own account under the firm of K. P. Aalsteker.
527
I have acquired, by being active for many years in respectable houses of this branch, a competent experience in business matters and the necessary knowledge of the branch, so that, supported by sufficient funds, I may consider myself able to manage the business of my house successfully.
528
The principle of the strictest loyalty will serve me as a guide in all my undertakings, and it will always be my endeavour to justify the confidence I now solicit and to bestow all possible care on the execution of the orders which you may be pleased to give me.
529
Requesting you to take notice of my signature subjoined, I have the honour to be, Gentlemen, most respectfully Yours, Karel P. Aalsteker, who will sign: K. P. Aalsteker.

Lesson 44: exercise 128

530
Haarlem, 15th February, 1912. Gentlemen,
531
I take the liberty of apprising you that I have established a manufactory of Metal-Bindings, the business of which I shall carry on, from and after this day, in my own name and on my own account.
532
A good water-power as well as all the latest improvements, in connection with a thorough knowledge of the above line of business and the necessary capital resources, enable me to manufacture, at reasonable prices, an article substantial and able to defy competition.

533
An order by way of trial will convince you that my fabrics may rival those of other manufactures, both for their beauty and soundness, and that, besides, they are somewhat cheaper than those.
534
I shall consider it an honour to see you among my customers, and you may be confident that I shall give you satisfaction in every respect.
535
I subjoin my price-list, begging you to believe me, Sir, Your obedient servant, Ferd. Witsenhoven.

Lesson 44: exercise 129

536
The Hague, 15th April, 1912. Gentlemen,
537
I have to inform you that I have sold to Mr. Theod. Slips the Factory-business hitherto carried on by me on my account under the firm of Mineraalwaterfabriek La Haye, Ph. Korthuis.
538
Mr. Slips will continue my business under the old firm, taking upon himself all the assets (there are no debts) and I request you to transfer to him the confidence with which you have honoured myself.
539
I return you my best thanks for the favour and support that I enjoyed at your hands on many occasions, and reserve to myself to acquaint you subsequently of my further enterprises.
540
Meanwhile I remain, Gentlemen, Yours truly, Ph. Korthuis, who ceases to sign: Mineraalwaterfabriek La Haye, Ph. Korthuis.

Lesson 44: exercise 130

541
The Hague, 15th April, 1912. Gentlemen,
542
You will learn by the above circular that, from this day forth, I have purchased the factory hitherto worked by Mr. Ph. Korthuis under the style of Mineraalwaterfabriek La Haye, and I request you to grant me a continuance of the confidence with which you have honoured my predecessor.
543
I shall do my best to maintain the good reputation which Mr. Ph. Korthuis always enjoyed, and I shall always consider it a duty to act upon the principle of the strictest integrity, which the said gentleman observed on all occasions, hoping that those whose support and goodwill I solicit, will see therein the best guaranty for the solidity of my business.
544
Be sure that I shall make a point of despatching to your satisfaction all the orders with which you may honour me from this day, and believe me, Gentlemen, to be Your most obedient servant, Theod. Slips, who will sign: Mineraalwaterfabriek La Haye, Theod. Slips.

Lesson 44: exercise 131

545
Nimwegen, 1st March, 1912. Gentlemen,
546
My foreign affairs repeatedly keeping me abroad for weeks and even months, I have this day given my procuration to Mr. Joh. Zeeman, for seven years my zealous assistant.
547
I request you to consider all that he will do in future in my name, as if it had been done by myself.
548
Calling your attention to Mr. Zeeman's signature, which you will find here below, and embracing the opportunity to solicit a continuance of your custom and favours, I remain, Gentlemen, Your obedient servant, P. Dorpers.
549
Mr. Joh. Zeeman will sign: P. Proc. P. Dorpers, Joh. Zeeman.

Lesson 45: Grammatical figures: introduction, and prosthesis

Changes in the shape of a word

Some words have changed their shape over time. A letter was added or lost, two sounds were joined, or two sounds swapped places.

A change of this kind is called a grammatical figure, or a word figure. Each kind of change has its own name.

These changes are not the endings that nouns and verbs take in a sentence. They are changes to the word itself.

A letter added at the front

Prosthesis means that a letter is added to the front of a word. The Dutch name is voorvoeging.

Nijver means industrious. Compare ijver. Naarstig means diligent. Compare ernst. Herinneren means to remember. Compare erinneren.

Lommer means shadow. It comes from the French l'ombre.

550
shadow (French l'ombre)
551
diligent (cf. ernst)
552
next to (cf. even)
553
industrious (cf. ijver)
554
to remember (cf. erinneren)
555
to hate (something), (cf. akelig)

Grammatical figures: introduction, and prosthesis

Changes some words have undergone besides those of declension or conjugation, by adding or losing a letter, by contracting, or by inversion, are called grammatical figures or word figures.

Prosthesis (voorvoeging, prefixing a sound) adds a letter to the front of a word.

Apheresis

Apheresis (afwerping, dropping a sound) drops a letter from the front of a word.

Paragoge

Paragoge (achtervoeging, adding a sound) adds a letter to the end of a word.

Apocope

Apocope (afkapping, dropping a sound) drops a letter from the end of a word; it always drops the personal ending of the verb before je, and it has dropped the unaccented e from many words that carried one in Old Dutch, including the first person singular present and the imperative of weak verbs.

Assimilation

Assimilation (gelijkmaking, making alike) changes one sound to match a neighbouring one; sometimes the following consonant is assimilated, sometimes the preceding one.

A few from the list
korrel               grain (instead of kernel, koorn)
niettemin            nevertheless (niet de min)
uitentreuren         endlessly (uit den treuren)
balling              exile (banling)
misschien            perhaps (het mag geschien)
en                   and (enne instead of ende)
el                   ell
elleboog             elbow (elne)
klimmen              to climb (klimben)
om                   around (omme instead of ombe)

Syncope

Syncope (uitstooting, dropping a sound) drops a letter from the middle of a word; it has dropped a d from several words, and the e of the prefixes be and ge from many others.

A few from the list
Frans                French (Franksch)
koopmanij            trade (koopmannij)
boomgaard            orchard (boomgaerd)
kost                 food, board (konst, konde)
blussen              to extinguish (belesschen)
vreten               to devour (vereten)
pruik                wig (French perruque)
krant                newspaper (courant)
kraal                bead, coral (koraal)
krent                currant (korint)

Elision

Elision (uitlating, leaving a sound out) drops a whole unaccented syllable or sound from within a word; in poetry it occurs very often at the end of a word before a vowel.

Synalepha

Synalepha (samensmelting, blending together) fuses two sounds into one; the old genitive ending ds and the combinations ts or tz have both become plain s this way, and w has been dropped from a few words.

A few from the list
elkaar               each other (elkaer instead of elkander)
ter                  at the (te der)
ten                  at the (te den)
samen                together (te zamen)
samenkomen           to meet, come together
samenstelling        composition
gezamenlijk          jointly
inzamelen            to collect
verzamelen           to gather
willens en wetens    knowingly and willingly (willends en wetends)

Epenthesis

Epenthesis (invoeging, inserting a sound) inserts a letter into the middle of a word; Dutch has inserted an s, an n, an e, a d, and various consonants borrowed with foreign words, and has sometimes inserted an e between two consonants, which adds a whole syllable to the word.

A few from the list
jaksken              little jacket
vlagsken             little flag
jongsken             little boy
zinloos              senseless
zinneloos            insane
werkloos             without work
werkeloos            idle
bestuurder           director (besturen)
diender              policeman (dienen)
daalder              dollar (coin)

Metathesis

Metathesis (omsetting, transposing) swaps the order of two sounds in a word; it occurs especially with r, but also with l and, in one word, with two consonants at once.

A few from the list
barnen               to burn (branden)
barnsteen            amber
borst                breast
bord                 board (German Brett)
derde                third (drie)
dertien              thirteen (drie)
dorsen               to thrash
gort                 groats (grut)
godsvrucht           piety (German Gottesfurcht)
kerstmis             Christmas (Christus)

Lesson 45: Apheresis

A letter dropped from the front

Apheresis means that a letter is dropped from the front of a word. The Dutch name is afwerping. It is the opposite of prosthesis.

The short form 'k is used instead of ik, and 't instead of het. Er is used instead of der or daar.

Sperge was asperge. Okkernoot was nokkernoot. Azuur was lasuur.

556
there (instead of der or daar)
557
I (instead of ik)
558
it, the (instead of het)
559
sledge (narreslede)
560
azure (lasuur)

561
salt cod (labberdaan)
562
long boat
563
viper
564
walnut (nokkernoot)
565
cap (amutse)

566
asparagus (asperge)
567
jug (apul)

Lesson 45: Paragoge

A letter added at the end

Paragoge means that a letter is added to the end of a word. The Dutch name is achtervoeging.

Iemand and niemand are built on man, with a d added at the end. Burcht means castle. Compare burg in schouwburg.

Te mijnent means at my house. Te uwent means at your house. Both end in an added t.

568
someone (man)
569
no one (man)
570
eagle (cf. Arnhem, adelaar)
571
castle (cf. schouwburg, burger, burgwal)
572
lad

573
shoe
574
then (orig. doe)
575
at my house
576
at your house
577
for my part
578
for our sake

Lesson 45: Apocope

A letter dropped from the end

Apocope means that a letter is dropped from the end of a word. The Dutch name is afkapping.

In Old Dutch many words ended in an e without stress. Many lost it. Bed was bedde. Hart was harte. Heer was heere.

The ik form of the present and the imperative of weak verbs lost this e too. Ik neem was neme. Ik meen was meene.

No personal ending before je

Before je, the verb always drops its personal ending.

Heb je means do you have. Ga je means are you going. Kom je means are you coming.

Other words lost a final letter as well. Is was ist. Als was alse.

579
poison (vergift)
580
is (instead of ist)
581
do you have
582
are you going
583
are you coming

584
if (alse)
585
ash (asche)
586
bed (bedde)
587
heart (harte)
588
gentleman (heere)

589
crib (kribbe)
590
I take (instead of neme)
591
I mean (instead of meene)
592
I thought (instead of dachte)

Lesson 45: Assimilation

One sound changes to match another

Assimilation means that one sound changes to match the sound next to it. The Dutch name is gelijkmaking, making alike.

Sometimes the sound after changes. Sometimes the sound before changes. Either way the two become alike.

Klimmen was klimben. The b changed to m, to match the m before it. Om was omme, instead of ombe. Penning was pending.

How to read the list

Each entry gives the word, its meaning, and often the older form it came from.

Misschien means perhaps. It came from het mag geschien. Niettemin means nevertheless. It came from niet de min.

In each pair, find the two sounds that met. One of them changed to match the other.

Assimilation

Assimilation (gelijkmaking, making alike) changes one sound to match a neighbouring one; sometimes the following consonant is assimilated, sometimes the preceding one.

593
grain (instead of kernel, koorn)
594
nevertheless (niet de min)
595
endlessly (uit den treuren)
596
exile (banling)
597
perhaps (het mag geschien)

598
and (enne instead of ende)
599
ell
600
elbow (elne)
601
to climb (klimben)
602
around (omme instead of ombe)

603
penny (pending, cf. pand)
604
to shiver (instead of ridlen, the obsolete rede, fever)
605
axle
606
box

Lesson 45: Syncope

A letter dropped from the middle

Syncope means that a letter is dropped from the middle of a word. The Dutch name is uitstooting.

A d was dropped from several words. Blaar was blader. Paarlemoer was paarlemoeder. Dirk was Diederik.

The e of the prefixes be and ge was dropped from many more. Blijven was belijven. Glimp was gelimp.

In the list, compare each word with the older form after it. Krant came from courant.

Syncope

Syncope (uitstooting, dropping a sound) drops a letter from the middle of a word; it has dropped a d from several words, and the e of the prefixes be and ge from many others.

607
French (Franksch)
608
trade (koopmannij)
609
orchard (boomgaerd)
610
food, board (konst, konde)
611
to extinguish (belesschen)

612
to devour (vereten)
613
wig (French perruque)
614
newspaper (courant)
615
bead, coral (koraal)
616
currant (korint)

617
blister (blader)
618
shy (bloode)
619
gladly (gradeg, hungry)
620
cue (keude, cf. kodde, stick)

Lesson 45: Elision

A whole syllable left out

A syllable is one part of a word said in one push of breath. Thuis has one syllable. Binnen has two.

Elision means that a whole syllable or sound without stress is left out from within a word. The Dutch name is uitlating.

Binnen was be-innen. Buiten was be-uiten. Thuis was te huis. Thans was te hands.

Elision in poetry

In poetry elision is very common at the end of a word, when the next word begins with a vowel.

Liefd' en haat means love and hate. Aard' en hemel means earth and heaven. The apostrophe shows the lost e.

621
within (be-innen)
622
above (be-oven, cf. over)
623
outside (be-uiten)
624
afraid (be-ang, cf. angst)
625
at the same time (te-even-s)

626
each time (te-elken-s)
627
at home (te huis)
628
now (te hands)
629
at least (al te hands)
630
nevertheless (from nochdans)

631
love and hate
632
earth and heaven

Lesson 45: Synalepha

Two sounds fused into one

Synalepha means that two sounds are fused into one. The Dutch name is samensmelting, blending together.

Ter was te der. Ten was te den. Samen was te zamen.

The old genitive ending ds changed to plain s. Volgens was volgends. 's Morgens was des morgens. The combinations ts and tz also changed to plain s.

A w was dropped from a few words. Zoet was zwoet. Zuster was zwuster.

Synalepha

Synalepha (samensmelting, blending together) fuses two sounds into one; the old genitive ending ds and the combinations ts or tz have both become plain s this way, and w has been dropped from a few words.

633
each other (elkaer instead of elkander)
634
at the (te den)
635
to meet, come together
636
jointly
637
to gather

638
according to (volgends)
639
in the evening (des avonds)
640
since
641
best
642
to adorn

643
to tremble
644
wreath
645
to waltz
646
mild (instead of zwoel)

Lesson 45: Epenthesis

A letter inserted in the middle

Epenthesis means that a letter is inserted into the middle of a word. The Dutch name is invoeging.

Dutch has inserted an s, an n, an e or a d. Foreign words brought in other consonants.

Jaksken means little jacket. Bestuurder means director, from besturen. Plaveien means to pave, from the French paver.

Sometimes an e went in between two consonants. This adds a whole syllable. Zinloos means senseless. Zinneloos means insane.

Epenthesis

Epenthesis (invoeging, inserting a sound) inserts a letter into the middle of a word; Dutch has inserted an s, an n, an e, a d, and various consonants borrowed with foreign words, and has sometimes inserted an e between two consonants, which adds a whole syllable to the word.

647
little jacket
648
senseless
649
idle
650
dollar (coin)
651
clean

652
to free
653
to spy
654
clear
655
nonsense
656
scrubbing brush

657
gallery
658
fowls
659
to pave (French paver)
660
syrup (French sirope)

Lesson 45: Metathesis

Two sounds change places

Metathesis means that two sounds swap their order in a word. The Dutch name is omsetting, transposing.

It occurs most with r, and also with l. In one word two consonants swap at once.

Derde means third. It comes from drie. In drie the r comes before the vowel. In derde it comes after it. Vers means fresh. Compare frisch.

Kabeljauw was bakeljauw. The b and the k changed places.

Metathesis

Metathesis (omsetting, transposing) swaps the order of two sounds in a word; it occurs especially with r, but also with l and, in one word, with two consonants at once.

661
to burn (branden)
662
amber
663
breast
664
board (German Brett)
665
third (drie)

666
thirteen (drie)
667
to thrash
668
groats (grut)
669
piety (German Gottesfurcht)
670
Christmas (Christus)

671
indigence (German Notdurft)
672
press (pressen)
673
to carry on the back (tros)
674
fresh (frisch)

Bilderdijk

675
Bilderdijk
676
On my daily way to the Leiden Gymnasium, my attention was once especially drawn, in 1822, near the Ruïne, by a man rather small than middling tall, a grey old man shuffling along with a dragging leg (à la Byron), with a three-cornered hat or a pointed hat, a dress coat or a ceremonial coat, short breeches, a long waistcoat, everything solemnly black, and with buckled shoes on his feet.
677
In his right hand he held a walking stick, but his left rested on the right shoulder of a small boy, who walked a couple of children's steps ahead of him, in the way one sometimes sees Belisarius pictured with a little boy who guides the old blind man.

678
That was Bilderdijk, accompanied by his ten-year-old little son, Lodewijk Willem.
679
So I saw the poet for the first time, and I kept staring all the more at the strange pair, because a townsman seemed to be stopping that old gentleman, as if against his will, but got from him no other answer than the clearly audible: “you're murdering me with your notes!”, with which he then finally had to be content and was sent packing.
680
Financial trouble was noticeably at play here.

681
That same year he wrote to Michiel De Haas, a friend in The Hague: “You ask me for eight guilders on loan, I do not have them, but I have borrowed them. There is the money! My situation means that I never have more money in the house than is strictly necessary from time to time. But I beg you, torment me no more.”
682
“Between the possession of money and the art of poetry the relationship has never, from of old, been very close: from Homer down to Camoens and Cervantes, and from these down to Vondel and Bilderdijk,” says Da Costa, “runs an ineffaceable trail, named Lack of Money, across the vast, barren field of national insensitivity.”
683
Dr. Wap.

Lesson 45: exercise 132

684
Rotterdam, 3d April, 1912. Mr. Fr. Knoppers, Machine Manufacturer, Venlo. Sir,
685
Being indebted for your address to Mr. C. Max of this place, we transmit you annexed the surveys of 3 Key-Groove Engines, requesting you to let us know by return of post at what price and within what time you will be able to deliver them.
686
We note at the same time that the affair is very urgent, and the period of delivery must not be beyond the 1st of May.
687
If you serve us well and at a fair price, we shall, most likely, give you some more orders, as for completing the accommodations of our factory we still want rather a great number of engines. Your obedient servants, Gerards & Kroese.

Lesson 45: exercise 133

688
Venlo, 5th April, 1912. Messrs. Gerards & Kroese, Rotterdam. Gentlemen,
689
I am glad to see from your favour of the 3d inst. that you wish to charge me with making three Key-Groove Engines, and declare that I am prepared to deliver them to you by the 1st of May.
690
Calculated from your surveys, the 3 engines will cost Fl. 1400, delivered here for cash, viz. No. 1, Fl. 550, No. 2, Fl. 500, and No. 3, Fl. 350.
691
In quoting those prices, I have made you all possible allowance, so that, a good workmanship supposed, my competitors will not make any cheaper offers; therefore I venture to hope you will charge me with manufacturing the said engines; in which case I request an immediate answer, because the period for delivery is a very short one, Your obedient servant, Fr. Knoppers.

Lesson 45: exercise 134

692
Kampen, 15th March, 1912. Messrs. Zadelhof & Timmermans, Amsterdam. Gentlemen,
693
I take the liberty of asking you whether and upon what terms you would permit me to domiciliate my bills at your respected house.
694
The mentioned bills would comprise transactions of about Fl. 80000, and the amounts of the single appoints always be considerable: very seldom less than Fl. 2000, and never less than Fl. 1000.
695
I should deem it my duty always to provide you with funds some days before expiration. Looking forward to your answer, I remain, Gentlemen, Yours respectfully, Jan Knap.

Lesson 45: exercise 135

696
Amsterdam, 18th March, 1912. Mr. Jan Knap, Kampen. Sir,
697
In reply to your favour of 15th inst., we have the honour to state that we willingly agree with your wish to make the drafts on you payable at our house.
698
Considering you promise transactions of Fl. 80000 per annum, payable in appoints not less than Fl. 1000, we will charge you a commission of 1/100 only, and send you the honoured bills postpaid.
699
We hope you will accept the moderate conditions which we offer you, and look forward to your answer. Your obedient servants, Zadelhof & Timmermans.

Lesson 45: exercise 136

700
Rotterdam, 1st May, 1912. Messrs. Hoffmann & Bar, Vienna. Gentlemen,
701
We have the pleasure of introducing to you Mr. Adolf Strelitski, bearer of the present, who is going to start for your town in order to prepare new business connections.
702
You will oblige us very much by aiding him with your counsels and local knowledge. As Mr. S. is an able and respectable man of business, we may recommend him to you, and request you to receive him in a friendly manner.
703
We thank you beforehand for all kindness you will evince towards Mr. S., and remain Yours respectfully, Wijnandts & Fock.

Lesson 45: exercise 137

704
Amsterdam, 15th May, 1912. Mr. Francesco Cirio, Milan. Sir,
705
I have the honour to open with you a credit for £12000, I say Twelve Thousand Lires, in favour of Mr. A. Harinxma, partner of the most respectable house Harinxma & Co.
706
Please to make payments to my friend, to the amount of the said sum, without deducting your charges, and to re-imburse yourself at your convenience for what I shall owe you, after having transmitted me beforehand one of the duplicate receipts.
707
I am, Sir, very truly, Your obedient servant, T. Borromeo.

Lesson 45: exercise 138

708
Middelburg, 18th May, 1912. Messrs. Schaap & Bonte, Amsterdam. Gentlemen,
709
Herewith I send you Fl. 12000 Rotterdam Tramway Shares, which please to sell at the best price possible, but not below 95; the net proceeds you will be so kind as to hold at my disposal.
710
Looking forward to your news, Gentlemen, I remain Yours obediently, P. C. de Graaf.

Lesson 45: exercise 139

711
Amsterdam, 21st May, 1912. Mr. P. C. de Graaf, Middelburg. Sir,
712
The Fl. 12000 Rotterdam Tramway Shares, which you sent us with your letter of the 18th inst., we have succeeded in selling at the rate of 95½, free of charges, and credited you accordingly for Fl. 11400, which amount we keep at your disposal.
713
If you might intend to invest this sum again in shares, we recommend to your attention as a solid paper the course of which is constantly rising, the shares of the Amsterdam Building Company at 87½.
714
Subjoining our latest exchange-list, we remain, Sir, Yours respectfully, Schaap & Bonte.

Lesson 45: exercise 140

715
Kampen, 1st May, 1912. Messrs. Bastings Brothers, Rotterdam. Gentlemen,
716
Mr. E. Pronk of the firm of Pronk & Co. of this town informed me that in a short time the place of corresponding clerk would become vacant, and I take the liberty of tendering you my services for filling it in; allow me, therefore, to describe to you the career I have hitherto had.
717
I am the son of the manufacturer H. K. Zandvliet at Tiel, and I was educated at Arnhem. At the beginning of my 15th year I commenced my articles with Mr. C. H. Klaverweide at Arnhem, who when I had completed my time of apprenticeship gave me the certificate annexed, in which he confirms that till the end I had conducted myself to his full satisfaction.

718
It was on the 15th of Oct. 1885 that, as a clerk entrusted with the invoices, I entered the Paper-Mill of Kampen, in which I have been up to this day as corresponding clerk.
719
If, considering all that I have said, you resolve to confide to me the place in question, you may be sure that I shall do my best to fill it to your satisfaction.
720
Requesting you to favour me with your confidence, which I should not fail to justify, I express my hope to receive favourable news from you, and remain, Gentlemen, with the assurance of my particular esteem, Yours obediently, Joh. Zandvliet.