Ancient Greek · Unit 2

Lessons VI to X

Pharr I: Letters, Nouns, Verbs

113 lines

Lesson VI: The Second Declension

The second declension

βουλή and the nouns like it belong to the first declension. This lesson adds the second declension. Its model is θῡμός, heart or spirit.

Singular: nominative θῡμός, genitive θῡμοῦ, dative θῡμῷ, accusative θῡμόν, vocative θῡμέ.

Plural: θῡμοί, θῡμῶν, θῡμοῖσι, θῡμούς. An ο is in almost every form. It marks the second declension, as α and η mark the first.

Gender

Every Greek noun has a gender: masculine, feminine or neuter. The gender belongs to the noun, like its spelling.

The word list shows the gender with a short word after the noun. ὁ means masculine, as in θεός, god. ἡ means feminine, as in νοῦσος, plague. τό means neuter, as in ἔργον, deed.

νοῦσος is feminine but ends in ος, like the masculine θεός. The nominative ending does not always show the gender. The word list does.

In a neuter noun the nominative, the accusative and the vocative are the same: ἔργον. In the plural all three are ἔργα.

Agreement

An adjective has the same gender, number and case as its noun. This is called agreement. Number means singular, dual or plural.

So an adjective has a form for each gender. κᾱλός, good, is masculine. κᾱλή is feminine. κᾱλόν is neuter. The word list gives all three: κᾱλός, ή, όν.

The masculine forms follow θῡμός, the feminine forms follow βουλή, and the neuter forms follow ἔργον. κᾱλοῦ ἔργου, of a good deed. κᾱλὰς βουλάς, good plans, as the object. φίλος, η, ον, dear, follows the same pattern.

Agreement does not mean the same ending. In νοῦσος κακή, an evil plague, the noun is feminine but has a second-declension ending. The adjective has the feminine form κακή. It follows the gender, not the ending.

1
The Achaeans bring splendid ransoms to the camp.
ἀγλαὰἀγλαός: bright, shining, splendid
ἄποιναransom(s)
φέρουσινφέρω: bring, carry
ἈχαιοὶἈχαιός: Achaean, Greek
εἰςto, into
στρατόν.στρατός: army, encampment, host
2
We bring countless ransoms throughout the camp of the Achaeans.
3
The god makes many Achaeans a prey for the birds.
4
Were the Achaeans cowardly?
5
They were not cowardly, but noble. A wicked plague destroys the noble host.
6
The Achaeans send countless ransoms to their fatherland.
7
The god goes to the camp, and destroys the host of the Achaeans.
8
Who dishonors the noble gods?
9
Wicked peoples dishonor the gods of their fatherland.
10
The god sends an evil plague throughout the camp of the Achaeans, for they do not fulfill the will of the gods of their fatherland.
11
He goes to the terrible sea and makes many pyres throughout the camp of the Achaeans.
12
They have countless ransoms of the Achaeans in the camp.
13
The plan of the army is not pleasing to the soul of the god.
14
The host of Cilla was dear to the soul of the goddess of the sea.
15
We do not sing the fair plans of the gods to the army, for it is not pleasing to the Achaeans in soul.
16
δεινὴ κλαγγὴ θαλάσσης ἀνδάνει θεᾷ θῡμῷ.
The terrible roar of the sea is pleasing to the goddess in (her) soul.
17
φέρομεν ἀγλαὰ ἄποινα πολλὰ στρατῷ Ἀχαιῶν.
We bring many splendid ransoms to the army of the Achaeans.
18
θεὸς οὐκ ὀλέκει λᾱὸν Ἀχαιῶν, οὐ γὰρ ἀτιμάζουσι θεοὺς πάτρης.
The god does not destroy the host of the Achaeans, for they do not dishonor the gods of (their) fatherland.
19
νοῦσος κακὴ τεύχει μῡρίους Ἀχαιοὺς ἐλώρια πολλοῖσιν οἰωνοῖσιν.
The evil plague makes countless Achaeans a booty (use plural) for many birds.
20
λᾱὸς Ἀχαιῶν πέμπει ἀγλαὰ μῡρία ἄποινα θεᾷ θαλάσσης ἐν Κίλλῃ.
The people of the Achaeans send countless shining ransoms to the goddess of the sea in Cilla.
21
Ἀχαιοὶ βαίνουσιν ἐπὶ θάλασσαν καὶ ἀείδουσιν, κλαγγὴ δὲ οὐκ ἀνδάνει θεᾷ θῡμῷ.
The Achaeans go to the sea and sing, but the noise is not pleasing to the goddess in (her) soul.
22
νοῦσος ὀλέκει λᾱόν, ἀτιμάζουσι γὰρ θεὸν Χρύσης.
The plague destroys the people, for they dishonor the god of Chrysa.
23
the accursed wrath, that brought the Achaeans countless woes,
24
and hurled down to Hades many mighty souls
25
of heroes, and made their bodies prey for dogs
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and for all birds, and the will of Zeus was being fulfilled,

θῡμός ·
N.	θῡμός
G.	θῡμοῦ
D.	θῡμῷ
A.	θῡμόν
V.	θῡμέ
N. A. V.	θῡμώ
G. D.	θῡμοῖιν
N. V.	θῡμοί
G.	θῡμῶν
D.	θῡμοῖσι
A.	θῡμούς

κᾱλὸν ἔργον ·
N.	κᾱλὸν ἔργον
G.	κᾱλοῦ ἔργου
D.	κᾱλῷ ἔργῳ
A.	κᾱλὸν ἔργον
V.	κᾱλὸν ἔργον
N. A. V.	κᾱλὼ ἔργω
G. D.	κᾱλοῖιν ἔργοιιν
N. V.	κᾱλὰ ἔργα
G.	κᾱλῶν ἔργων
D.	κᾱλοῖσι ἔργοισι
A.	κᾱλὰ ἔργα

κᾱλός, masculine ·
N.	κᾱλός
G.	κᾱλοῦ
D.	κᾱλῷ
A.	κᾱλόν
V.	κᾱλέ
N. A. V.	κᾱλώ
G. D.	κᾱλοῖιν
N. V.	κᾱλοί
G.	κᾱλῶν
D.	κᾱλοῖσι
A.	κᾱλούς

κᾱλή, feminine ·
N.	κᾱλή
G.	κᾱλῆς
D.	κᾱλῇ
A.	κᾱλήν
V.	κᾱλή
N. A. V.	κᾱλᾱ́
G. D.	κᾱλῆιν
N. V.	κᾱλαί
G.	κᾱλᾱ́ων
D.	κᾱλῇσι
A.	κᾱλᾱ́ς

§678.    θῡμός, οῦ, ὁ spirit, life, soul.   κακὸς πόλεμος, ου, ὁ evil war.
   (θῡμο-)                            (κακο- πολεμο-)

SINGULAR
N.   θῡμός             κακὸς πόλεμος
G.   θῡμοῦ, οῖο [όο]   κακοῦ πολέμου, οῖο, οιο [όο, οο]
D.   θῡμῷ              κακῷ πολέμῳ
A.   θῡμόν             κακὸν πόλεμον
V.   θῡμέ              κακὲ πόλεμε

DUAL
N. A. V.   θῡμώ      κακὼ πολέμω
G. D.      θῡμοῖιν   κακοῖιν πολέμοιιν

PLURAL
N. V.   θῡμοί          κακοὶ πόλεμοι
G.      θῡμῶν          κακῶν πολέμων
D.      θῡμοῖσι, οῖς   κακοῖσι πολέμοισι, οῖς οις
A.      θῡμούς         κακοὺς πολέμους

§679.    κᾱλὸν ἔργον, ου, τό noble deed.   κακὴ νοῦσος, ου, ἡ destructive plague.
   (κᾱλο- ϝεργο-)                    (κακᾱ- νουσο-)

SINGULAR
N.   κᾱλὸν ἔργον                      κακὴ νοῦσος
G.   κᾱλοῦ ἔργου, οῖο, οιο [όο, οο]   κακῆς νούσου, οιο [οο]
D.   κᾱλῷ ἔργῳ                        κακῇ νούσῳ
A.   κᾱλὸν ἔργον                      κακὴν νοῦσον
V.   κᾱλὸν ἔργον                      κακὴ νοῦσε

DUAL
N. A. V.   κᾱλὼ ἔργω         κακᾱ̀ νούσω
G. D.      κᾱλοῖιν ἔργοιιν   κακῆιν νούσοιιν

PLURAL
N. V.   κᾱλὰ ἔργα                   κακαὶ νοῦσοι
G.      κᾱλῶν ἔργων                 κακᾱ́ων [έων, ῶν] νούσων
D.      κᾱλοῖσι ἔργοισι, οῖς, οις   κακῇσι νούσοισι, ῇς οις
A.      κᾱλὰ ἔργα                   κακὰς νούσους

§717. Adjectives

Adjectives have three declensions, as nouns, and follow the same general rules.

§718. With respect to form they may be divided into four classes:

1) Adjectives of the first and second (vowel) declensions.
2) Adjectives of the second declension (mostly compounds).
3) Adjectives of the first and third declensions.
4) Adjectives of the third (consonant) declension.

§719. The form of the adjective which appears in the vocabulary is the nominative singular of all genders (except in the case of a very few of only one gender, in which case the nominative and genitive singular are given).

§720. Adjectives of the first and second declensions have three endings (ος, η, ον) in the nominative singular, for the three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, respectively.

§721. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

κᾱλός, ή, όν beautiful, noble
(κᾱλο-, κᾱλᾱ-, κᾱλο-)

SINGULAR
Masc. Fem. Neut.
N. κᾱλός κᾱλή κᾱλόν
G. κᾱλοῦ, οῖο [όο] κᾱλῆς κᾱλοῦ, οῖο [όο]
D. κᾱλῷ κᾱλῇ κᾱλῷ
A. κᾱλόν κᾱλήν κᾱλόν
V. κᾱλέ κᾱλή κᾱλόν

DUAL
N. A. V. κᾱλώ κᾱλᾱ́ κᾱλώ
G. D. κᾱλοῖιν κᾱλῆιν κᾱλοῖιν

PLURAL
N. V. κᾱλοί κᾱλαί κᾱλά
G. κᾱλῶν κᾱλᾱ́ων [έων, ῶν] κᾱλῶν
D. κᾱλοῖσι, οῖς κᾱλῇσι, ῇς κᾱλοῖσι, οῖς
A. κᾱλούς κᾱλᾱ́ς κᾱλά

φίλος, η, ον dear, lovely, beloved
(φιλο-, φιλᾱ-, φιλο-)

SINGULAR
Masc. Fem. Neut.
N. φίλος φίλη φίλον
G. φίλου, οιο [οο] φίλης φίλου, οιο [οο]
D. φίλῳ φίλῃ φίλῳ
A. φίλον φίλην φίλον
V. φίλε φίλη φίλον

DUAL
N. A. V. φίλω φίλᾱ φίλω
G. D. φίλοιν φίλῃιν φίλοιν

PLURAL
N. V. φίλοι φίλαι φίλα
G. φίλων φιλᾱ́ων [έων, ῶν] φίλων
D. φίλοισι, οις φίλῃσι, ῃς φίλοισι, οις
A. φίλους φίλᾱς φίλα

NOTE. Superlatives (as ἄριστος, η, ον), participles in ος, η, ον and all words that have these three endings in the nominative singular are similarly declined.

§1025. An adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case, but not always in form, since they may belong to different declensions, as νοῦσος κακή an evil plague, where νοῦσος, although feminine, is of the second declension and ends in -ος. This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and participles, as μῡρί’ ἄλγεα countless woes, πολλὰς δ’ ἰφθῑ́μους ψῡχὰς Ἄιδι προίαψεν and sent many valiant souls to Hades, διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε these two separated after they had quarreled, δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς godlike Achilles, ἦλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας he came to the swift ships, θεοὶ Ὀλύμπια δώματ’ ἔχοντες the gods who have Olympian homes.

ἀγλαὰ: Bright, shining, splendid, from ἀγλαός
ἄποινα: Ransom
στρατόν: Army, encampment, host, from στρατός
ἀπερείσι’: Boundless, countless, immeasurable, from ἀ-περείσιος
ἀνὰ: Adv., and prep. with gen., dat
θεὸς: God, divinity
κακοί: Bad, poor, ugly, from κακός
κᾱλοὶ: Good, noble, handsome, from καλός
νοῦσος: Plague, disease, pest
λᾱὸν: People, host, soldiery, from λαός
δεινὴν: Terrible, awful, dread, from δεινός
θῡμῷ: Heart, soul, spirit, from θυμός
φίλος: Dear, darling, lovely

Lesson VII: Review

Review of the first six lessons

This lesson teaches nothing new. It reviews the first six lessons before the next lessons add to them.

You have learned three things. Nouns change their endings to show their case, in two declensions: βουλή and θῡμός. Adjectives agree with their nouns. Verb endings show who acts, as in λύετε.

The word list repeats the words of those lessons. Learn them exactly. Every word in a later reading lesson is first given in a word list.

27
We sing of the goddess of the terrible sea with much clamor.
28
They do not dishonor the gods.
29
The plans of the Achaeans are not pleasing to the beautiful goddess in her soul.
30
He goes from the camp of the Achaeans to Cilla and brings countless ransoms to the god.
31
An evil plague goes throughout the camp and makes many Achaeans a prey for the birds.
32
Both gods and goddesses destroy the host of the Achaeans.
33
Who of the Achaeans has an evil heart?
34
Were there many goddesses in the sea?
35
He burns pyres by the sea.
36
You break up the army of the Achaeans.
37
The fatherland is dear to the soul of countless Achaeans.
38
Who sends the army from Cilla to Chrysa?
39
The plan is evil, but it is pleasing to the goddess in her soul.
40
What are you singing?
41
Ἀχαιοὶ ἀείδουσι κᾱλὴν θεὰν θαλάσσης δεινῆς.
The Achaeans sing the beautiful goddess of the terrible sea.
42
οὐκ ἀτιμάζομεν θεούς, φίλοι γάρ εἰσιν ψῡχῇσι.
We do not dishonor the gods, for they are dear to (our) souls.
43
βουλαὶ στρατοῦ ἀνδάνουσι θεᾷ κᾱλῷ θῡμῷ.
The plans of the army are pleasing to the goddess in (her) noble soul.
44
πολλοὶ Ἀχαιοὶ βαίνουσιν ἐκ στρατοῦ καὶ φέρουσιν μῡρία καὶ ἀγλαὰ ἄποινα θεοῖσι.
Many Achaeans are going from the encampment and are bringing countless glorious ransoms to the gods.
45
νοῦσος κακὴ ὀλέκει λᾱὸν καὶ τεύχει στρατὸν ἐλώρια μῡρίοισιν οἰωνοῖσιν.
The evil plague destroys the people and makes the army a booty for countless birds.
46
οὐκ ἀείδομεν, οὐ γὰρ ἀνδάνει ψῡχῇ θεᾶς.
We do not sing, for it is not pleasing to the soul of the goddess.
47
The wrath of Peleus' son Achilles, sing, goddess,
48
the accursed wrath, that brought the Achaeans countless woes,
49
and hurled down to Hades many mighty souls
50
of heroes, and made their bodies prey for dogs
51
and for all birds, and the will of Zeus was being fulfilled,

Lesson VIII: Second Declension (continued)

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or points to one: he, she, it, this, that, who.

This lesson teaches four pronouns. It also teaches ἄλλος, other, which has the same endings.

A pronoun has a form for each gender, like κᾱλός, κᾱλή, κᾱλόν.

One rule is new. In the neuter these words end in ο, where κᾱλός has κᾱλόν: αὐτό and κεῖνο. The tables show the other differences. Read them closely.

ὁ, ἡ, τό

The most common pronoun is ὁ, ἡ, τό: masculine ὁ, feminine ἡ, neuter τό.

In Homer it usually means this or that. It can also mean he, she or it, or who or which.

Later Greek used it as the word for the. Pharr's English often translates it that way: τὸν στρατὸν, the army.

Learn its forms well. They are everywhere. Masculine: ὁ, τοῦ, τῷ, τόν. Feminine: ἡ, τῆς, τῇ, τήν. Neuter: τό, τοῦ, τῷ, τό. Plural masculine: οἱ, τῶν, τοῖσι, τούς.

Most masculine and neuter forms are the second-declension endings with τ in front. The feminine forms are like βουλή.

αὐτός, ὅς, κεῖνος and ἄλλος

αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό is an intensive pronoun. An intensive pronoun adds emphasis: self, or same. δῖος ἑκηβόλος αὐτὸς is the divine free-shooter himself. Its forms are αὐτός, αὐτοῦ, αὐτῷ, αὐτόν, and the feminine αὐτή.

ὅς, ἥ, ὅ is a relative pronoun. A relative pronoun begins a group of words that describes a noun: the gods who have golden sceptres. There, who is a form of ὅς, ἥ, ὅ. Its plural is οἵ, αἵ, ἅ.

ἐκεῖνος, η, ο is a demonstrative pronoun. A demonstrative pronoun points: that one, he, she, it. Pharr also prints it without the first ε: κεῖνος.

ἄλλος, η, ο means other. It has the same endings as κεῖνος.

52
The divine free-shooter himself sings, but it is not pleasing to the other gods in soul.
53
Those Achaeans dishonor the gods.
54
The free-shooter sends an evil plague up through the camp of the Achaeans and evilly destroys that people, because they dishonor him.
55
We do not dishonor the gods, who have golden sceptres.
56
Both the free-shooter and the other gods carry beautiful golden sceptres.
57
Who makes the golden sceptres for the gods of the sea?
58
Does the free-shooter himself sing the plans of the other gods to the Achaeans?
59
Are the Achaeans, who destroy the army and burn the funeral pyres, noble?
60
The goddess of the terrible sea has the golden sceptre.
61
The funeral pyres are in the fatherland.
62
Who makes the army a prey for the birds?
63
ἀείδει δῖος ἑκηβόλος αὐτὸς τὰς κᾱλὰς βουλὰς τῶν θεῶν;
Does the divine free-shooter himself sing these noble plans of the gods?
64
τί οὐκ ἀνδάνει τοῖσιν ἄλλοισι θεοῖσιν, οἳ εἰσὶν ἐνὶ θαλάσσῃ;
Why is it not pleasing to these other gods who are in the sea?
65
κεῖνος Ἀχαιὸς ἀτιμάζει κείνους θεοὺς πάτρης, οἳ ἔχουσι τὰ χρύσεα σκῆπτρα.
That Achaean dishonors those gods of (his) fatherland who have these golden sceptres.
66
ὁ ἑκηβόλος πέμπει νούσους κακὰς πολλὰς ἀνὰ κεῖνον στρατὸν Ἀχαιῶν καὶ ὀλέκει μυρίους λᾱούς, οὕνεκα τὸν ἀτιμάζουσιν.
This free-shooter sends many evil plagues up through that camp of the Achaeans and destroys countless people (plural), because they dishonor him.
67
τίς καίει κείνας πυρὰς Ἀχαιῶν ἐπὶ δεινῇ θαλάσσῃ;
Who is burning those funeral pyres of the Achaeans by the terrible sea?
68
ὁ ἑκηβόλος τεύχει μῡρίους Ἀχαιοὺς ἐλώρια τοῖσιν οἰωνοῖσιν, οὕνεκα ἀτιμάζουσι τὰς κᾱλὰς θεὰς θαλάσσης.
This free-shooter makes countless Achaeans a booty for the birds, because they dishonor these beautiful goddesses of the sea.
69
the accursed wrath, that brought the Achaeans countless woes,
70
of heroes, and made their bodies prey for dogs
71
and for all birds, and the will of Zeus was being fulfilled,

ὁ ·
N.	ὁ
G.	τοῦ
D.	τῷ
A.	τόν
N. A.	τώ
G. D.	τοῖιν
N.	οἱ
G.	τῶν
D.	τοῖσι
A.	τούς

ἡ ·
N.	ἡ
G.	τῆς
D.	τῇ
A.	τήν
N.	αἱ
G.	τάων
D.	τῇσι
A.	τάς

τό ·
N.	τό
G.	τοῦ
D.	τῷ
A.	τό
N. A.	τώ
G. D.	τοῖιν
N.	τά
G.	τῶν
D.	τοῖσι
A.	τά

αὐτός ·
N.	αὐτός
G.	αὐτοῦ
D.	αὐτῷ
A.	αὐτόν
N. A.	αὐτώ
G. D.	αὐτοῖιν
N.	αὐτοί
G.	αὐτῶν
D.	αὐτοῖσι
A.	αὐτούς

αὐτή ·
N.	αὐτή
G.	αὐτῆς
D.	αὐτῇ
A.	αὐτήν
N.	αὐταί
G.	αὐτᾱ́ων
D.	αὐτῇσι
A.	αὐτᾱ́ς

αὐτό ·
N.	αὐτό
G.	αὐτοῦ
D.	αὐτῷ
A.	αὐτό
N. A.	αὐτώ
G. D.	αὐτοῖιν
N.	αὐτά
G.	αὐτῶν
D.	αὐτοῖσι
A.	αὐτά

§765. The most common pronoun, ὁ, ἡ, τό, used regularly as the definite article in later Greek, is usually employed as the demonstrative, but sometimes as a personal or as a relative pronoun in Homer. It is declined as follows:

ὁ, ἡ, τό this, that; he, she, it; who, which, what

SINGULAR
N.   ὁ           ἡ     τό
G.   τοῦ, τοῖο   τῆς   τοῦ, τοῖο
D.   τῷ          τῇ    τῷ
A.   τόν         τήν   τό

DUAL
N. A.   τώ      (τώ)      τώ
G. D.   τοῖιν   (τοῖιν)   τοῖιν

PLURAL
N.   οἱ (τοί)      αἱ (ταί)     τά
G.   τῶν           τάων [τῶν]   τῶν
D.   τοῖσι, τοῖς   τῇσι, τῇς    τοῖσι, τοῖς
A.   τούς          τάς          τά

§766. The intensive pronoun is declined as follows:

αὐτός, ή; ὁ self, same

SINGULAR
N.   αὐτός        αὐτή    αὐτό
G.   αὐτοῦ, οἷο   αὐτῆς   αὐτοῦ, οἷο
D.   αὐτῷ         αὐτῇ    αὐτῷ
A.   αὐτόν        αὐτήν   αὐτό

DUAL
N. A.   αὐτώ      (αὐτώ)      αὐτώ
G. D.   αὐτοῖιν   (αὐτοῖιν)   αὐτοῖιν

PLURAL
N.   αὐτοί          αὐταί              αὐτά
G.   αὐτῶν          αὐτᾱ́ων [έων, ὦν]   αὐτῶν
D.   αὐτοῖσι, οἷς   αὐτῇσι, ῇς         αὐτοῖσι, οἷς
A.   αὐτούς         αὐτᾱ́ς              αὐτά

§773. Relative Pronoun

ὅς (ὅ), ἥ, ὅ who? which? what?

SINGULAR
     Masc.          Fem.       Neut.
N.   ὅς (ὅ)         ἥ          ὅ
G.   οὗ [ὅου, ὅο]   ἧς [ἕης]   οὗ [ὅου, ὅο]
D.   ᾧ              ᾗ          ᾧ
A.   ὅν             ἥν         ὅ

DUAL
           Masc.   Fem.    Neut.
N. A. V.   ὥ       (ὥ)     ὥ
G. D.      οἷν     (οἷν)   οἷν

PLURAL
     Masc.       Fem.      Neut.
N.   οἵ          αἵ        ἅ
G.   ὧν          ὧν        ὧν
D.   οἷσι, οἷς   ᾗσι, ᾗς   οἷσι, οἷς
A.   οὕς         ἅς        ἅ

§774. Demonstrative Pronouns

(ἐ)κεῖνος, η, ο that

SINGULAR
     Masc.            Fem.        Neut.
N.   (ἐ)κεῖνος        (ἐ)κείνη    (ἐ)κεῖνο
G.   (ἐ)κείνου, οιο   (ἐ)κείνης   (ἐ)κείνου, οιο
D.   (ἐ)κείνῳ         (ἐ)κείνῃ    (ἐ)κείνῳ
A.   (ἐ)κεῖνον        (ἐ)κείνην   (ἐ)κεῖνο

DUAL
           Masc.         Fem.            Neut.
N. A. V.   (ἐ)κείνω      ((ἐ)κείνω)      (ἐ)κείνω
G. D.      (ἐ)κείνοιιν   ((ἐ)κείνοιιν)   (ἐ)κείνοιιν

PLURAL
     Masc.              Fem.                   Neut.
N.   (ἐ)κεῖνοι          (ἐ)κεῖναι              (ἐ)κεῖνα
G.   (ἐ)κείνων          (ἐ)κεινά̄ων [ἔων, ὧν]   (ἐ)κείνων
D.   (ἐ)κείνοισι, οις   (ἐ)κείνῃσι, ῃς         (ἐ)κείνοισι, οις
A.   (ἐ)κείνους         (ἐ)κείνά̄ς              (ἐ)κεῖνα

ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε this

SINGULAR
     Masc.           Fem.    Neut.
N.   ὅδε             ἥδε     τόδε
G.   τοῦδε, τοῖοδε   τῆσδε   τοῦδε, τοῖοδε
D.   τῷδε            τῇδε    τῷδε
A.   τόνδε           τήνδε   τόδε

DUAL
        Masc.     Fem.        Neut.
N. A.   τώδε      (τώδε)      τώδε
G. D.   τοῖινδε   (τοῖινδε)   τοῖινδε

PLURAL
     Masc.          Fem.             Neut.
N.   οἵδε (τοίδε)   αἵδε (ταίδε)     τάδε
G.   τῶνδε          τά̄ωνδε [τῶνδε]   τῶνδε
D.   τοῖσ(ι)δε      τῇσ(ι)δε         τοῖσ(ι)δε
A.   τούσδε         τά̄σδε            τάδε

οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο this

SINGULAR
     Masc.         Fem.     Neut.
N.   οὗτος         αὕτη     τοῦτο
G.   τούτου, οιο   ταύτης   τούτου, οιο
D.   τούτῳ         ταύτῃ    τούτῳ
A.   τοῦτον        ταύτην   τοῦτο

DUAL
        Masc.      Fem.         Neut.
N. A.   τούτω      (τούτω)      τούτω
G. D.   τούτοιιν   (τούτοιιν)   τούτοιιν

PLURAL
     Masc.           Fem.                Neut.
N.   οὗτοι           αὗται               ταῦτα
G.   τούτων          ταυτά̄ων [ἔων, ὧν]   τούτων
D.   τούτοισι, οις   ταύτῃσι, ῃς         τούτοισι, οις
A.   τούτους         ταύτά̄ς              ταῦτα

NOTE. The dative plural of ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε at times has τοίσδεσ(σ)ι instead of τοῖσ(ι)δε.

δῖος: DIVINE, heavenly, glorious
ἑκηβόλος: Free-shooter, sharpshooter, from ἑκη-βόλος
ἀλλ’: But, moreover, from ἀλλά
ἄλλοισι: Other, another, from ἄλλος
κεῖνοι: = ἐκεῖνος, η, ο, from κεῖνος
τοὺς: Demonstrative, personal, and relative pronoun, from ὁ
κακῶς: Evilly, wickedly, harshly
οὕνεκα: Because
σκῆπτρα: SCEPTRE, staff, from σκῆπτρον
χρύσεα: Gold, of gold, from χρύσεος

Lesson IX: The Imperfect of Verbs in -ω

Tense and the augment

A verb has tenses. A tense is a form that shows when the action happens. So far you know only the present.

English usually marks the past at the end of the word: loose, loosed. Greek marks it at the front.

Greek adds ἐ to the beginning of the verb. This is the augment. λύω, I loose, becomes ἔλυον, I was loosing.

The imperfect

This lesson's tense is the imperfect, a past tense. Pharr translates it I was loosing, and also I loosed or I did loose. The sentence shows which fits.

If the verb begins with a consonant, the augment is ἐ in front: λύω, ἔλυον. If the verb begins with a vowel, the augment makes that vowel long: ἀκούω, I hear, becomes ἤκουον, I was hearing.

Homer often leaves the augment off.

The endings differ a little from the present. Singular: ἔλυον, ἔλυες, ἔλυε, for I, you, he. Plural: ἐλύομεν, ἐλύετε, ἔλυον, for we, you all, they. Dual: ἐλύετον, you two, and ἐλυέτην, they two.

ἔλυον means both I was loosing and they were loosing. The sentence shows which.

72
The free-shooter, through the gift of prophecy, tells the plans of the gods to the Argives.
73
The Olympian gods had homes on Olympus.
74
The free-shooter, dear to Zeus, made the Argives and Achaeans a prey for the birds.
75
The Achaeans and the Argives performed evil deeds because of the will of a goddess.
76
Clytaemestra performed the dreadful deeds because of passion.
77
Priam and the people of Priam destroyed many Argives.
78
Who tells Priam your evil deeds?
79
My deeds are noble, because I performed the plans of the gods and goddesses through the gift of prophecy.
80
We sent the golden sceptres into Priam's house.
81
Were you burning the funeral pyres with a terrible roar?
82
Was the plan not pleasing to the goddess of the sea in soul?
83
The goddesses sing the noble deeds of the gods, but the free-shooter goes elsewhere.
84
Priam had a splendid and beautiful home.
85
τίς ἔφερε τὰ μῡρία ἀγλαὰ ἄποινα εἰς τὸν κᾱλὸν οἶκον Πριάμου;
Who brought these countless shining ransoms to the beautiful home of Priam?
86
Ἀχαιοὶ καὶ Ἀργεῖοι ἔκαιον πολλὰς πυρὰς ἐνὶ σῇ φίλῃ πάτρῃ.
The Achaeans and the Argives burned many funeral pyres in your beloved fatherland.
87
Κλυταιμ(ν)ήστρη κακὴ ἦν καὶ ἔτευχε πολλὰ ἔργα δεινά.
Clytaem(n)estra was wicked and performed many dreadful deeds.
88
διὰ τὴν μαντοσύνην εἴρομεν πολλὰ ἀγλαὰ ἔργα θεῶν καὶ θεάων, οἳ ἔχουσιν Ὀλυμπίους οἴκους.
Through the gift of prophecy we tell many glorious deeds of the gods and goddesses who have Olympian homes.
89
τὰ ἔργα ἐμά ἐστι κᾱλά, τὰ δὲ σὰ κακά.
My deeds are noble but yours are cowardly.
90
οἱ θεοὶ ἔπεμπον νοῦσον κακὴν ἀνὰ τὸν στρατὸν καὶ ὤλεκον πολλοὺς Ἀχαιούς, οὕνεκα ἠτίμαζον τὸν ἑκηβόλον.
The gods sent an evil plague up through the camp and destroyed many Achaeans, because they dishonored the free-shooter.
91
οὐχ ἥνδανε Κλυταιμ(ν)ήστρῃ κακῇ ψῡχῇ.
It was not pleasing to Clytaem(n)estra in (her) wicked soul.
92
and hurled down to Hades many mighty souls

λύω · imperfect indicative active
S. 1	ἔλυον	I was loosing; I loosed, did loose
2	ἔλυες	you were loosing, you loosed, did loose
3	ἔλυε	he was loosing, he loosed, did loose
Du. 2	ἐλύετον	you two were loosing, etc.
3	ἐλυέτην	they two were loosing, etc.
Pl. 1	ἐλύομεν	we were loosing, etc.
2	ἐλύετε	you were loosing, etc.
3	ἔλυον	they were loosing, etc.

§830. Augment. Greek verbs prefix an augment (increase) at the beginning of the secondary (816) tenses of the indicative, to denote past time.

§831. This augment is of two kinds:

1) syllabic augment, which prefixes ἐ- to verbs beginning with a consonant, as λύω I loose, imperfect ἔλυον I was loosing.
2) temporal augment, which lengthens the first syllable of words beginning with a vowel or a diphthong, as ἀκούω I hear, ἤκουον I was hearing.

§832. When augmented α, ε regularly become η; ι, ο, υ become ῑ, ω, ῡ respectively; αι and ᾳ become η; while οι becomes ῳ.

§833. Of course η, ῃ, ῑ, ῡ, ω, and ῳ do not undergo any change when augmented.

§834. Verbs beginning with ρ regularly double it after the augment. Those beginning with λ, μ, ν, or σ sometimes double the initial consonant after the augment.

§835. Verbs beginning with a vowel formerly preceded by a lost consonant (usually ϝ, or σ), may take the syllabic instead of the temporal augment, as ἐάνδανον, imperfect of ἀνδάνω (σϝανδανω) please.

§836. When initial σ has thus been lost, the augment always contracts with the first vowel of the stem, according to the rules (584-5); when initial ϝ has been lost, contraction may or may not take place. Thus ἔχω (σεχω), imperfect εἶχον (ἐσεχον, ἔεχον); ἕπομαι (σεπομαι), imperfect εἰπόμην (ἐσεπομην, ἔεπομην); εἶδον (ἐϝιδον), second aorist of ὁράω (ϝοραω); ἄγνῡμι (ϝαγνῡμι, aorist ἔαξα (ἐϝαξα).

§837. The augment, both syllabic and temporal, is often omitted.

§838. Compound Verbs. Some prepositions (originally adverbs) are prefixed to verbs, the whole forming a compound. If the preposition ends with a vowel and the verb begins with one, the vowel of the preposition is usually elided (575), as διίστημι (διά-ἵστημι), ἀφαιρέω (ἀπό-αἱρέω (582)).

§839. The augment of compound verbs comes between the preposition and the verb. If two vowels are thus brought together, the first is usually elided, as ἀπολύω loose, free; imperfect ἀπέλυον (ἀπό-ἔλυον); aorist ἀπέλῡσα (ἀπό-ἔλῡσα).

§840. Imperfect. The imperfect (a secondary tense (816)) is formed by adding the secondary endings (821) to the augmented stem of the present, as λύω I loose, imperfect ἔλυον I was loosing; τίθημι I place, imperfect ἐτίθην.

§904. Conjugation of λῡ́-ω I loose
Observe that the υ of λύω is long only when followed by σ; otherwise it is short.

Active

Indicative

Present
Greek English
S. 1 λύω I loose, am loosing, do loose
2 λύεις you loose, are loosing, do loose
3 λύει he looses, is loosing, does loose
Du. 2 λύετον you two loose, etc.
3 λύετον they two loose, etc.
Pl. 1 λύομεν we loose, etc.
2 λύετε you loose, etc.
3 λύουσι they loose, etc.

Imperfect
Greek English
S. 1 ἔλυον I was loosing; I loosed, did loose
2 ἔλυες you were loosing, you loosed, did loose
3 ἔλυε he was loosing, he loosed, did loose
Du. 2 ἐλύετον you two were loosing, etc.
3 ἐλυέτην they two were loosing, etc.
Pl. 1 ἐλύομεν we were loosing, etc.
2 ἐλύετε you were loosing, etc.
3 ἔλυον they were loosing, etc.

Future
Greek English
S. 1 λῡ́σω I shall (will) loose
2 λῡ́σεις you will (shall) loose
3 λῡ́σει he will (shall) loose
Du. 2 λῡ́σετον you two will (shall) loose
3 λῡ́σετον they two will (shall) loose
Pl. 1 λῡ́σομεν we shall (will) loose
2 λῡ́σετε you will (shall) loose
3 λῡ́σουσι they will (shall) loose

Aorist
Greek English
S. 1 ἔλῡσα I loosed, did loose
2 ἔλῡσας you loosed, did loose
3 ἔλῡσε he loosed, did loose
Du. 2 ἐλῡ́σατον you two loosed, did loose
3 ἐλῡσάτην they two loosed, did loose
Pl. 1 ἐλῡ́σαμεν we loosed, did loose
2 ἐλῡ́σατε you loosed, did loose
3 ἔλῡσαν they loosed, did loose

Perfect
Greek English
S. 1 λέλυκα I have loosed
2 λέλυκας you have loosed
3 λέλυκε he has loosed
Du. 2 λελύκατον you two have loosed
3 λελύκατον they two have loosed
Pl. 1 λελύκαμεν we have loosed
2 λελύκατε you have loosed
3 λελύκᾱσι they have loosed
The perfect of λύω is not found in Homer, but these are the ordinary forms in Attic Greek. For the Homeric perfect system see 922-924, 966.

Pluperfect
Greek English
S. 1 ἐλελύκη (-εα) I had loosed
2 ἐλελύκης (-εας) you had loosed
3 ἐλελύκει (-εε) he had loosed
Du. 2 ἐλελύκετον you two had loosed
3 ἐλελυκέτην they two had loosed
Pl. 1 ἐλελύκεμεν we had loosed
2 ἐλελύκετε you had loosed
3 ἐλελύκεσαν they had loosed

διὰ: Adv., and prep. with gen. and acc., through
μαντοσύνην: Gift of prophecy, from μαντοσύνη
εἴρει: Speak, say, tell, from εἴρω
Ἀργείοισιν: Argive, Greek, from Ἀργεῖος
Ὀλύμπιοι: Olympian, from Ὀλύμπιος
οἴκους: House, home, from οἶκος
Ὀλύμπῳ: Olympus, from Ὄλυμπος
διίφιλος: Dear to Zeus, from διί-φιλος
ἔργα: Work, deed, accomplishment, from ἔργον
Κλυταιμνήστρη: Clytaemestra, wife of Agamemnon
Πρίαμος: Priam, king of Troy
σὰ: Your, yours, from σός
ἐμά: My, mine, from ἐμός
ἄλλῃ: Elsewhere

Lesson X: The Future and Aorist of Verbs in -ω

The future and the aorist

This lesson adds two tenses. The future states what will happen. The aorist is another past tense: I loosed, I did loose.

Both are formed the same way. Add σ to the stem, before the ending. The stem is the part of the verb that has its basic meaning. In λύω it is the part before the ending.

Future: λῡ́σω, I shall loose. λῡ́σεις, you will loose. λῡ́σει, he will loose. The endings are the present endings.

Aorist: the augment marks the past at the front, as in the imperfect. Most endings have α. ἔλῡσα, I loosed. ἔλῡσας, you loosed. ἔλῡσε, he loosed. Plural: ἐλῡ́σαμεν, ἐλῡ́σατε, ἔλῡσαν.

σ after the last sound of the stem

The σ combines with the last sound of the stem. π and σ make ψ: πέμπω, πέμψω, ἔπεμψα, send. κ, γ or χ and σ make ξ: τεύχω, τεύξω, ἔτευξα, make.

τ, δ or θ drop out before σ: πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα, persuade. ἀείδω, ἀείσω, ἤεισα, sing.

A short vowel at the end of the stem becomes long: φιλέ-ω, φιλήσω, ἐφίλησα, love.

Some verbs are irregular. ἄγ-ω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον, lead, has an aorist with no σ.

From now on the word list gives three forms of each verb: present, future and aorist, each in the I form. Learn all three for every verb.

93
Who was by far the best of the Danaans?
94
Great-souled Priam ruled over Ilium.
95
The great-souled Danaans will not again bring many hecatombs to Chrysa.
96
They did not persuade the free-shooter with many beautiful hecatombs.
97
Shall we not love the gods, because they are good?
98
The Danaans will prepare death for Priam in Ilium.
99
I loved the goddess of the sea, but it was not pleasing to the free-shooter in soul.
100
We shall sing and persuade the gods.
101
By far the best men in Ilium said these things to Priam, but he dishonored them.
102
Priam sent the best army against the Argives.
103
The Danaans went again to Ilium, but they did not persuade Priam.
104
We shall sing of the free-shooter, by far the best of the gods, because he led the Danaans to Ilium.
105
Ἀχαιοὶ μεγάθῡμοι οὐ πείσουσι τὸν ἑκηβόλον ἑκατόμβῃσι κᾱλῇσιν, ἀλλὰ τεύξει θάνατον κακὸν λᾱῷ.
The great-souled Achaeans will not persuade the free-shooter with goodly hecatombs, but he will prepare evil death for the people.
106
οἱ ἄριστοι Ἀχαιῶν ἔβησαν εἰς Ἴλιον, ἀλλ’ οὐκ ἔπεισαν ψῡχὴν Πριάμου.
The noblest of the Achaeans went to Ilium, but they did not persuade the soul of Priam.
107
ἀείσομεν, οὕνεκα θεοὶ ἤγαγον τὸν λᾱὸν εἰς Ἴλιον.
We shall sing, because the gods have led (aor.) the people into Troy.
108
ἕξομεν πολλὰ ἀγλαὰ χρύσεα σκῆπτρα.
We shall have many shining golden sceptres.
109
οὐκ ἐφιλήσατε τοὺς θεούς, οἳ ἔχουσιν Ὀλυμπίους οἴκους;
Did you not love the gods who have Olympian homes?
110
οὐκ αὖτις ἀνάξει Πρίαμος Ἰλίου, Ἀχαιοὶ γὰρ τεύξουσι θάνατον κακὸν αὐτῷ.
Priam shall not rule Ilium again, for the Achaeans will prepare evil death for him.
111
εἶπε κᾱλῇ θεᾷ θαλάσσης;
Did he speak to the beautiful goddess of the sea?
112
πείσουσι τὰς ψῡχὰς τῶν θεῶν ἑκατόμβῃσι πολλῇσιν.
They will persuade the souls of the gods with many hecatombs.
113
either lingering now or coming back hereafter,

λύω · future indicative active
S. 1	λῡ́σω	I shall (will) loose
2	λῡ́σεις	you will (shall) loose
3	λῡ́σει	he will (shall) loose
Du. 2	λῡ́σετον	you two will (shall) loose
3	λῡ́σετον	they two will (shall) loose
Pl. 1	λῡ́σομεν	we shall (will) loose
2	λῡ́σετε	you will (shall) loose
3	λῡ́σουσι	they will (shall) loose

λύω · aorist indicative active
S. 1	ἔλῡσα	I loosed, did loose
2	ἔλῡσας	you loosed, did loose
3	ἔλῡσε	he loosed, did loose
Du. 2	ἐλῡ́σατον	you two loosed, did loose
3	ἐλῡσάτην	they two loosed, did loose
Pl. 1	ἐλῡ́σαμεν	we loosed, did loose
2	ἐλῡ́σατε	you loosed, did loose
3	ἔλῡσαν	they loosed, did loose

§841. First Aorist. The first aorist of vowel and mute verbs (849) (a secondary tense, 816) is regularly formed by adding -σ(σ)α to the augmented verb stem, followed by the personal endings of the secondary tenses. If the verb stem ends in a long vowel or a consonant only one σ is ever added; if it ends in a short vowel, either one or two sigmas may be used.

§842. “Mixed” Aorists. A few aorists (sometimes called “mixed aorists”) are formed by adding -σο/ε, followed by the personal endings of the secondary tenses, to the augmented verb stem.

§843. ἵημι throw, send; δίδωμι give, grant; and τίθημι put, place, have -κα in the aorist instead of -σα.

§844. Future. The future (a primary tense) of vowel and mute verbs (849) is regularly formed by adding the tense suffix -σ(σ)ο/ε to the verb stem, followed by the personal endings of the primary tenses.

§845. If the verb stem ends in a long vowel, the stem is not affected by the addition of -σο/ε and -σα in the formation of the future and aorist.

§846. If the verb stem ends in a short vowel, all tenses except the present and imperfect regularly lengthen this, α and ε becoming η; ο becoming ω; as ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα; χολόω, χολώσω, ἐχόλωσα. Exception: ἐάω gives ἐάσω, εἴᾱσα.

§847. Some verbs do not lengthen the short vowel according to the rule in 846.

§848. These, and a few others, usually have σ before the personal ending of the perfect middle and the aorist passive.

§849. Classes of Verbs. Verbs are called vowel verbs, liquid verbs, nasal verbs, and mute verbs, according as their stem ends in a vowel, a liquid, a nasal, or a mute (509-516).

§850. Mute Verbs. If the verb stem ends in a mute, the following euphonic changes take place:

1) a labial mute (π, β, φ) unites with the sigma following and forms ψ, as πέμπω, πέμψω (πεμπσω), ἔπεμψα (ἐπεμπσα) send, escort: ἀμείβω, ἀμείψω, ἤμειψα (ἀμειβσω, ἠμειβσα) (ex)change;
2) a palatal mute (κ, γ, χ) unites with the sigma following and forms ξ, as ἀρήγω, ἀρήξω (ἀρηγσω), ἤρηξα (ἠρηγσα) help, assist; τεύχω, τεύξω (τευχσω), ἔτευξα (ἐτευχσα) make, fashion, cause.
3) a lingual mute (τ, δ, θ) before the σ is assimilated (610, 4), as πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα persuade; ἀείδω, ἀείσω, ἤεισα sing.

§851. Liquid and Nasal Verbs. If a verb stem ends in a liquid (λ, ρ) or a nasal (μ, ν), the future is regularly formed by adding -εσο/ε, with the loss of σ between vowels (603), to the verb stem, to which are attached the primary personal endings, as βάλλω, βαλέω (from βαλεσω) throw, shoot.

§852. In a few cases the first ε is omitted, and σ is retained in verbs of this kind, as ὄρνῡμι, ὄρσω arouse, stir up.

§853. A few verbs in addition to those with liquid and nasal stems have lost σ in the future, as καλέω, καλέω call, summon. In general these verbs have a liquid or nasal before the final vowel of the stem, and imitate the forms of the futures of liquid and nasal verbs.

§854. Those formations in which σ is dropped after α or ε are sometimes called “Attic futures.”

§855. A few verbs have active forms in the present, but middle forms in the future, as ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι hear.

§856. Verbs with liquid and nasal stems regularly form their aorists by dropping the σ and lengthening the stem vowel by compensation (601), α becoming η, ε becoming ει, ι becoming ῑ, and υ becoming ῡ, as φαίνω (φαν-), φανέω (φανεσω), ἔφηνα (ἐφανσα) show; μένω, μενέω (μενεσω), ἔμεινα (ἐμενσα) remain, await.

§857. In some cases the σ is retained in formations of this kind, as ὄρνῡμι, ὦρσα stir up, arouse; κέλλω, ἔκελσα land; κύρω, κύρσω meet.

ὄχ’: Far, much, considerably, from ὄχα
ἄριστος: Best, noblest, bravest
Δαναῶν: Danaan, Greek, from Δαναός
μεγάθῡμος: Great-souled, brave, from μεγά-θυμος
ἤνασσεν: Rule, guard, protect, from ἀνάσσω
Ἰλίου: Ilium, Troy, from Ἴλιος
αὖτις: Again, anew
ἄξουσι: Lead, drive, conduct, from ἄγ-ω
ἑκατόμβᾱς: Hecatomb, sacrifice, from ἑκατόμ-βη
ἔπεισαν: Persuade, win over, mislead, from πείθω
φιλήσομεν: Love, cherish, entertain hospitably, from φιλέ-ω
θάνατον: Death, from θάνατος
ἢ: Or, than, whether
νῦν: Now, at this time, as matters now are
δηθύνοντʼ: Loiter, tarry, delay, from δηθύνω
ὕστερον: Behind, later, at another time, from ὕστερος
ἰόντα: Come, go, from εἶμι

The particulars

The course: Clyde Pharr, Homeric Greek: A Book for Beginners, Boston, 1920. Public domain. The teaching pages, the English on reveal, the word glosses and the keys to the English-to-Greek exercises are ours.
Reading aloud: Digital narration, directed by 1732 Studios.
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