Prīmus et Secundus Annus, Lessons LXVII–LXXI

The Irregular Verbs Volō, Nōlō, Mālō: The Ablative with a Participle, or Ablative Absolute (D'Ooge LXVII)

volunt with an infinitive

volunt venīre means "they wish to come." volunt amīcōs venīre means "they wish their friends to come."

volunt takes an infinitive alone or with its subject in the accusative.

The indicative table places volunt among the irregular forms of volō, nōlō, and mālō.

Indicative

The relation sets the meaning

Magistrō laudante omnēs puerī dīligenter labōrant means "with the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently."

Magistrō and laudante agree in the ablative. This ablative absolute gives the circumstance attending the boys' labor.

Hīs rēbus cognitīs mīlitēs fūgērunt means "when this was known, the soldiers fled."

An ablative absolute can express time, cause, concession, or condition. Its English translation normally uses a clause that states the precise relation.

When the ablative is absolute

In Gallī ā Caesare victi domum revertērunt, Gallī and victi belong to the subject and remain nominative.

In Gallīs ā Caesare victīs exercitus domum revertit, exercitus is the subject. Gallīs and victīs are independent and form the ablative absolute.

No participle from sum

tē duce means "with you as leader." patre īnfirmō means "my father being weak."

sum has no present participle. An ablative absolute can therefore contain two nouns or a noun and an adjective with no participle expressed.

1
they wish to come
voluntvolo: will, be willing; wish
venīrevenio: come, go
2
they wish their friends to come
3
with the teacher praising, or since the teacher praises, or the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently
4
with Cæsar leading, or when Cæsar leads, or if Cæsar leads, or Cæsar leading, no one fears to advance
5
when this was known, or since this was known, or these things having been learned, the soldiers fled
6
after the battle had begun, or when the battle had begun, or the battle having been joined, many were wounded
7
you (being) leader, with you as leader
8
my father (being) weak
9
The Gauls, having been conquered by Cæsar, returned home
10
The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, the army returned home

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LXVII, §§379-381

§379. Learn the principal parts and conjugation of volō, wish; nōlō (ne + volō), be unwilling; mālō (magis + volō), be more willing, prefer (§497). Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf. §354.)

a. These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or without a subject accusative; as, volunt venīre, they wish to come; volunt amīcōs venīre, they wish their friends to come. The English usage is the same.[1]
[1] Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after these verbs. (See §366.)

[ Conjugations given in §497:

PRINCIPAL PARTS: volō, velle, voluī, ----, be willing, will, wish nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, ----, be unwilling, will not mālō, mālle, māluī, ----, be more willing, prefer

INDICATIVE
SINGULAR
Pres. volō nōlō mālō
vīs nōn vis māvīs
vult nōn vult māvult

PLURAL
volumus nōlumus mālumus
vultis nōn vultis māvul´tis
volunt nōlunt mālunt

Impf. volēbam nōlēbam mālēbam
Fut. volam, volēs, etc. nōlam, nōlēs, etc. mālam, mālēs, etc.
Perf. voluī nōluī māluī
Plup. volueram nōlueram mālueram
F.P. voluerō nōluerō māluerō

SUBJUNCTIVE
SINGULAR
Pres. velim nōlim mālim
velīs nōlīs mālīs
velit nōlit mālit

PLURAL
velī´mus nōlī´mus mālī´mus
velī´tis nōlī´tis mālī´tis
velint nōlint mālint

Impf. vellem nōllem māllem
Perf. voluerim nōluerim māluerim
Plup. voluissem nōluissem māluissem

IMPERATIVE
Pres. nōlī
nōlīte
Fut. nōlītō, etc.

INFINITIVE
Pres. velle nōlle mālle
Perf. voluisse nōluisse māluisse

PARTICIPLE
Pres. volēns, -entis nōlēns, -entis ----]

§380. Observe the following sentences:

1. Magistrō laudante omnēs puerī dīligenter labōrant, with the teacher praising, or since the teacher praises, or the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently.

2. Caesare dūcente nēmō prōgredī timet, with Cæsar leading, or when Cæsar leads, or if Cæsar leads, or Cæsar leading, no one fears to advance.

3. Hīs rēbus cognitīs mīlitēs fūgērunt, when this was known, or since this was known, or these things having been learned, the soldiers fled.

4. Proeliō commissō multī vulnerātī sunt, after the battle had begun, or when the battle had begun, or the battle having been joined, many were wounded.

a. One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in English by the preposition with (cf. §50). In each of the sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the ablative expresses attendant circumstance. For example, in the first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is clearly a with relation, and the ablative is the case to use.

b. We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence. If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin, but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The attendant circumstance may be one of time (when or after), or one of cause (since), or one of concession (though), or one of condition (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation, and translate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will best express the thought.

§381. RULE. Ablative Absolute. The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance.

NOTE 1. The verb sum has no present participle. In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, tē duce, you (being) leader, with you as leader; patre īnfirmō, my father (being) weak.

NOTE 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare

a. The Gauls, having been conquered by Cæsar, returned home

b. The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, the army returned home

In a the subject is The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, and we translate,

Gallī ā Caesare victi domum revertērunt

In b the subject is the army. The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate,

Gallīs ā Caesare victīs exercitus domum revertit

NOTE 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf. §375.a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other. For example, we can translate Cæsar having encouraged the legions just as it stands, because hortor is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say Cæsar having conquered the Gauls, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because vincō is not deponent, and say, the Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar (see translation above).

Latin into English (D'Ooge LXVII)

11
As the sun was rising, the birds began to sing.
12
When the shouts had been heard, the barbarians refused to advance.
13
When Caesar had encouraged the legions, the soldiers fought a little more bravely.
14
When these things had been learned, the Helvetii persuaded their neighbors to march with them.
15
When the labors had been finished, the soldiers asked Caesar to give them rewards.
16
When the council had been called together, the chiefs answered thus.
17
The leader, delaying several days in the territory of the Helvetii, burned many villages.
18
When the size of the Germans had been learned, certain of the Romans were afraid.
19
When the traders had been questioned, Caesar could find out nothing more.

hortātō: encouragement, urging

Give the forms (D'Ooge LXVII)

20
That he may be unwilling, that we might wish, that he may prefer.
21
wish more, prefer
22
not to wish, be unwilling
23
not to wish, be unwilling

English into Latin (D'Ooge LXVII)

24
He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished.
25
You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish.
26
We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer.
27
Cæsar, when he heard the rumor, commanded (imperāre) the legions to advance more quickly.
28
Since Cæsar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey.
29
A few, terrified[2] by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home.
30
After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible.
31
After Cæsar had undertaken the business, he was unwilling to delay longer.[3]

Publius Goes to Rome to Finish his Education (Lentulus LXVII)

32
And now Publius, fifteen years old, having finished the first elements of letters, wished to go to Rome to attend the schools of the grammarians and philosophers.
33
And he very easily persuaded his father, who was himself held by a fondness for philosophy.
34
And so, when everything had been got ready for the departure, father and son, riding on spirited horses, set out for the great city.
35
As they set out, Julia and the whole household followed them with vows and prayers.
36
Then through level country and hills clothed with woods they took the road to Nola, which town received them with modest hospitality.
37
At Nola they stayed two hours, because the midday sun was blazing.
38
Then by a straight road they hastened about twenty miles to Capua, the distinguished city of Campania.
39
There, weary, they arrived late at night. On the day after that day, refreshed by sleep and food, they left Capua and, taking the Appian Way, which touches Capua and leads all the way to the city of Rome, they reached Sinuessa before noon, a town which touches the sea.
40
Setting out from there at dawn, they hastened to Formiae, where Cicero, the most famous orator, who happened to be at his villa, received them kindly.
41
From here, after a journey of twenty-five miles, they saw Tarracina, a town situated on very high rocks.

elementīs: first principles, rudiments, from elementum
scholās: school, from schola
philosophiae: philosophy, from philosophia
animōsīs: courageous, bold
prōsecūtae: pursue, from prosequor
plāna: level, flat, from planus
circiter: about
īnsignem: remarkable, noted, from insignis
recreātī: restore, revive, from recreo

42
And now not far off were the great marshes, which stretch many miles on every side.
43
Through these the road on foot is hard, and travelers are carried in a boat.
44
And so, leaving the horses, Lentulus and Publius boarded a boat and, having spent one night in the crossing, came to Forum Appii.
45
Then in a short time Aricia received them.
46
This town, situated on a hill, is sixteen miles from the city of Rome.
47
From there the road slopes down all the way to the wide plain where Rome stands.
48
When Publius came to this place and caught sight of Rome, still distant, the greatest city of the whole world, he was filled with the greatest wonder and joy.
49
Without delay they went down, and, having covered the intervening space as quickly as possible, entered the city by the Capene gate.

pedestris: on foot, from pedester
trānsitū: passage, from transitus
dēclivis: sloping downward
intervāllō: interval, distance, from intervallum

The Irregular Verb Fīō: The Subjunctive of Result (D'Ooge LXVIII)

The result follows the cause

Terror erat tantus ut omnēs fugerent means the terror was so great that all fled.

Terror erat tantus names the cause. ut omnēs fugerent states its consequence.

A clause that states this consequence is a result clause.

Ut carries the result

Result clauses begin with ut or ut nōn, and their verbs take the subjunctive.

In Terror erat tantus ut nōn facile mīlitēs sēsē reciperent, ut nōn introduces the negative result and reciperent is subjunctive.

After a verb of effecting or bringing about, the result clause can be its object.

Terror fēcit ut omnēs fugerent means terror caused all to flee. Here ut omnēs fugerent is the object of fēcit.

Tam separates result from purpose

Tam graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur means he was so severely wounded that he was captured.

Tam in the principal clause points to ut caperētur as a result.

Without tam, Graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur means he was severely wounded in order that he might be captured.

Both affirmative clauses use ut. A negative purpose clause uses nē, while a negative result clause uses ut nōn.

50
the terror was so great that all fled
51
the terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover themselves
52
terror caused all to flee (lit. made that all fled)
53
He was so severely wounded that he was captured
54
He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LXVIII, §§383-387

§383. The verb fīō, be made, happen, serves as the passive of faciō, make, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed regularly from faciō. Learn the principal parts and conjugation (§500). Observe that the i is long except before -er and in fit.

a. The compounds of facio with prepositions usually form the passive regularly, as,

Active     cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus
Passive    cōnficior, cōnficī, cōnfectus sum

[ Conjugation given in §500:

PRINCIPAL PARTS fīō, fierī, factus sum

INDICATIVE                 SUBJUNCTIVE              IMPERATIVE
Pres.    fīō      ----     fīam          2d Pers. fī      fīte
         fīs      ----
         fit      fīunt
Impf.    fīēbam            fierem
Fut.     fīam              ----

INDICATIVE                       SUBJUNCTIVE
Perf.    factus, -a, -um  sum    factus, -a, -um  sim
Plup.    factus, -a, -um  eram   factus, -a, -um  essem
F.P.     factus, -a, -um  erō

INFINITIVE                       PARTICIPLES
Pres.    fierī                   Perf.    factus, -a, -um
Perf.    factus, -a, -um  esse   Ger.     faciendus, -a, -um
Fut.     [[factum īrī]]]

§384. Observe the following sentences:

1. Terror erat tantus ut omnēs fugerent, the terror was so great that all fled.

2. Terror erat tantus ut nōn facile mīlitēs sēsē reciperent, the terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover themselves.

3. Terror fēcit ut omnēs fugerent, terror caused all to flee (lit. made that all fled).

a. Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal clause and a subordinate clause.

b. The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause states the consequence or result of this cause.

c. The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the subjunctive of consequence or result, and the clause is called a consecutive or result clause.

d. In the last example the clause of result is the object of the verb fēcit.

e. The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is ut = so that; negative, ut nōn = so that not.

§385. RULE. Subjunctive of Result. Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by ut or ut nōn and have the verb in the subjunctive.

§386. RULE. Object clauses of result with ut or ut nōn are found after verbs of effecting or bringing about.

§387. Purpose and Result Clauses Compared. There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by ut; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has nē and the result clause ut nōn. Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as tam, ita, sic (so), and these serve to point them out. Compare

a. Tam graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur
  He was so severely wounded that he was captured
b. Graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur
  He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured

Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out?

Latin into English (D'Ooge LXVIII)

55
The soldiers were so slow that they did not reach the camp before night.
56
The sun causes all things to be beautiful.
57
The dangers were of such a kind that no one wished to set out.
58
The horsemen of the enemy contended with our cavalry on the march, yet in such a way that our men were superior in all parts.
59
The courage of our soldiers brought it about that the enemy did not withstand even one attack.
60
The men were so bold that they could in no way be restrained.
61
The space was so small that the soldiers could not easily throw their weapons.
62
When this battle had been fought, the barbarians were so thoroughly frightened that ambassadors were sent to Caesar from the most distant tribes.
63
This battle was fought so that ambassadors might not be sent to Caesar.

Give the forms (D'Ooge LXVIII)

64
become, be made
65
become, be made
66
become, be made

English into Latin (D'Ooge LXVIII)

67
It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen.
68
It happens, he will be made, to happen.
69
They are made, we were being made, lest it happen.
70
The soldiers are so brave that they conquer.
71
The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer.
72
The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken.
73
The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken.
74
After the town was taken,[3] the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves.
75
What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself?

Publius Puts on the Toga Virilis (Lentulus LXVIII)

76
Publius had now been staying at Rome a whole year, and had seen many sights of the city and had won many friends for himself.
77
All favored him; all could have good hopes of him.
78
Daily Publius attended the schools of the philosophers and grammarians with such zeal that he set a shining example to the others.
79
Often he was with his father in the senate house; which fact brought it about that he both heard and saw the highest men of the state.
80
When he was sixteen years old, he laid aside the golden locket and the purple-bordered toga according to Roman custom and put on the toga of manhood.
81
Now the toga of manhood was wholly white, but the praetexta had a purple stripe on the border. To lay aside the purple-bordered toga and put on the toga of manhood was a most welcome thing to a Roman boy, because afterwards he was regarded as a man and a Roman citizen.
82
When these things had been done, Lentulus wrote this letter to his wife:
83
"Marcus sends greeting to his Julia.
84
If you are well, it is well; I am well.
85
I have received your letter.

margine: edge, border, from margo

86
This one I now send from Rome by a most faithful slave, so that you may know about our Publius as quickly as possible.
87
For to-day I gave him the toga of manhood.
88
I rose before daylight and first removed the golden locket from his neck.
89
When this had been consecrated to the Lares and the sacred rites performed, I clothed him in the toga of manhood.
90
Meanwhile many friends, with a crowd of the best citizens and honorable clients, had arrived to escort Publius from the house into the forum.
91
There he was received into the citizenship, and his name, Publius Cornelius Lentulus, was enrolled among the Roman citizens.
92
All were most friendly to him and predict great things of him.
93
For he is wiser than those of his own age and has great talent. Take care that you keep well."

cōnsecrātā: consecrate, devote, from consecro
ascrīptum: add, insert

The Subjunctive of Characteristic or Description: The Predicate Accusative (D'Ooge LXIX)

A fact and a description

Caesar est is quī nōs dūcit means Caesar is the man who is leading us. The relative clause with indicative dūcit states a fact.

Caesar est is quī nōs dūcat means Caesar is the man to lead us. The relative clause with subjunctive dūcat describes Caesar.

This use is the subjunctive of characteristic or description. Nihil videō quod timeam, I see nothing to fear, follows the same rule.

Two accusatives become nominatives

Rōmānī Caesarem cōnsulem fēcērunt means the Romans made Caesar consul. Caesarem is the direct object. Cōnsulem is the predicate accusative.

Both words refer to Caesar. Cōnsulem completes the predicate with the direct object.

In Caesar cōnsul ā Rōmānīs factus est, both accusatives become nominatives because the verb is passive.

The paired sentences show the same persons and roles in active and passive forms.

From the book

94
who is there who does not love his own home?
95
there were (some) who were unwilling to do this
96
you are not such a one as to, or you are not the man to, betray your friends
97
I see nothing to fear
98
Cæsar is the man who is leading us
99
Cæsar is the man to lead us
100
the Romans made Cæsar consul
101
Cæsar was made consul by the Romans

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LXIX, §§389-393

§389. Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description.

This construction is illustrated in the following sentences:

1. Quis est quī suam domum nōn amet? who is there who does not love his own home?

2. Erant quī hoc facere nōllent, there were (some) who were unwilling to do this.

3. Tū nōn is es quī amīcōs trādās, you are not such a one as to, or you are not the man to, betray your friends.

4. Nihil videō quod timeam, I see nothing to fear (nothing of such as character as to fear it).

a. Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the indicative. Compare the sentences

Cæsar is the man who is leading us,
Caesar est is quī nōs dūcit
(mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative)
Cæsar is the man to lead us,
Caesar est is quī nōs dūcat
(descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive)

b. Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a relative, as is quī, are translated such a one as to, the man to.

c. In which of the following sentences would you use the indicative and in which the subjunctive?

These are not the men who did this
These are not the men to do this

§390. RULE. Subjunctive of Characteristic. A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the subjunctive of characteristic or description.

§391. Observe the sentences

1. Rōmānī Caesarem cōnsulem fēcērunt,
     the Romans made Cæsar consul.

2. Caesar cōnsul ā Rōmānīs factus est,
     Cæsar was made consul by the Romans.

a. Observe in 1 that the transitive verb fēcērunt, made, has two objects: (1) the direct object, Caesarem; (2) a second object, cōnsulem, referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a Predicate Accusative.

b. Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both of the accusatives become nominatives, the direct object becoming the subject and the predicate accusative the predicate nominative.

§392. RULE. Two Accusatives. Verbs of making, choosing, calling, showing, and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives.

§393. The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are

creo, creāre, creāvī, creātus, choose
appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātus }
nōminō, nōmināre, nōmināvī, nōminātus       } call
vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus               }
faciō, facere, fēcī, factus, make

Latin into English (D'Ooge LXIX)

102
In the forests of Germany there are many kinds of wild beasts which have not been seen in other places.
103
There were two routes by which the Helvetii could depart from home.
104
There was no band, no town, no garrison which could defend itself with arms.
105
When all the grain had been seized, there was nothing at home with which they could keep off death.
106
The Romans made Galba leader and set out with the greatest speed.
107
Nor was there anyone of so great a multitude who wished to delay.
108
The Germans are not the kind of men to fear the arrival of Caesar.
109
When the consuls had been killed, there were those who wished to make him king.
110
When peace had been made, there was no one who was unwilling to hand over his arms.
111
Among the Helvetii who was there who was nobler than he?

English into Latin (D'Ooge LXIX)

112
The Romans called the city Rome.
113
The city was called Rome by the Romans.
114
The better citizens wished to choose him king.
115
The brave soldier was not the man to run.
116
There was no one [3]to call me friend.
117
These are not the men to[4] betray their friends.
118
There were (some) who called him the bravest of all.

Publius Joins Cæsar’s Army in Gaul (Lentulus LXIX)

119
Publius, now a young man, after he put on the toga of manhood, began to devote himself to other things, and especially trained himself diligently in the use of arms.
120
More and more he loved those arts which delight the military spirit.
121
And now there were those who predicted for him a military career.
122
Nor without reason, because certainly his father's distinguished example had so much drawing power. A few years before, C. Julius Caesar, the greatest of Roman leaders, had been made consul and at this time was waging a serious war in Gaul.
123
And in his army many young men were serving, among whom was a certain friend of Publius.
124
He in frequent letters strongly urged Publius to make the journey into Gaul.
125
Nor did Publius refuse, and, with many friends escorting him to the gate of the city, he set out for Caesar's camp.
126
On the fourth day after he began the journey, he reached the Alps, very high mountains.
127
When these had been crossed with the greatest difficulty, at last he was in the territory of the Gauls.
128
At first, however, he feared that he could not approach the Roman camp, because the Gauls, having collected very great forces, were besieging the Romans and had already closed all the roads.

ūsū: use, advantage, from usus
mīlitārem: military, from militaris
mīlitābant: serve as a soldier, from milito

129
Alarmed by these things, Publius put on Gallic dress so that he might not be captured by the Gauls, and so was able to reach the camp unharmed through the forces of the enemy.
130
Admitted within the fortifications, he was kindly received by Caesar.
131
The commander praised the brave young man in the most generous words and made him a military tribune.
132
An army which is waging war in the territory of the enemy is surrounded by many dangers. To avoid these dangers, the Romans were accustomed to use the greatest care.
133
When approaching the forces of the enemy, they arranged the column so that the commander himself with several legions in light marching order led the van.
134
Behind these forces they placed the baggage of the whole army. Then the legions which had been most recently enrolled closed the whole column.

genit: begotten
perīcuīs: die, pass away
circumdatus: place around, surround, from circumdo
plāribus: more, from plūs
expedītīs: without baggage, from expeditus
cōnscrīptae: enroll, enlist, from conscribo

135
Horsemen too were sent out in all directions to explore the country; and centurions were sent ahead to choose a place suitable for a camp.
136
A place was considered suitable for a camp which could easily be defended and was near water.
137
For this reason the camp was often pitched on a hill steep on either side and gently sloping in front; or a place surrounded by marshes or situated on the banks of a river was chosen.
138
After the army reached the place, some of the soldiers were under arms, others began to fortify the camp.
139
For, in order that the soldiers might be safer from the enemy and might not be overwhelmed off guard and unprepared, they fortified the camp with a wide ditch and a high rampart.
140
In the camp there were four gates, so that a sally of the soldiers could be made in all directions.
141
At the corners of the camp there were towers from which weapons were hurled at the enemy. In such a camp as we have described Publius was received by Caesar.

praemittēbantur: send ahead or forward
arduō: steep, from arduus
nēve: and not, and that not
incautī: off one’s guard, from incautus
imparātī: unprepared, from imparatus
ēruptiō: sally

The Constructions with the Conjunction cum: The Ablative of Specification (D'Ooge LXX)

Cum fixes the time

Caesarem vīdī tum cum in Galliā eram means "I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul."

Cum in Galliā eram states a fact and fixes the time of Caesarem vīdī. Eram is indicative.

Cum describes the circumstances

Caesar in eōs impetum fēcit cum pācem peterent means "Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace."

Cum pācem peterent describes the circumstances of the attack. Peterent is subjunctive.

Cum takes the subjunctive unless it means when and fixes the time of the main action.

Cum means since when its clause gives a cause. It means although when its clause states a concession.

The ablative names the respect

Oppidum erat parvum magnitūdine sed magnum multitūdine hominum means "the town was small in size but great in population."

Magnitūdine tells in what respect the town was small. Multitūdine tells in what respect it was great.

Homō erat corpore īnfīrmus sed validus animō means "the man was weak in body but strong in courage." Corpore and animō have the same use.

The ablative of specification denotes the respect in which something is true.

Four idioms

The idiom aliquem certiōrem facere means "to inform some one." Certior fierī means "to be informed."

Iter dare means "to give a right of way" or "allow to pass." Obsidēs inter sē dare means "to give hostages to each other."

142
I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul
143
Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace
144
this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds
145
though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood their ground
146
when I was in Gaul
147
the town was small in size but great in population
148
the man was weak in body but strong in courage
149
to inform some one (lit. to make some one more certain)
150
to be informed (lit. to be made more certain)
151
to give a right of way, allow to pass
152
to give hostages to each other

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LXX, §§395-399

§395. The conjunction cum has the following meanings and constructions:

cum TEMPORAL = when, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive cum CAUSAL = since, followed by the subjunctive cum CONCESSIVE = although, followed by the subjunctive

As you observe, the mood after cum is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences:

1. Caesarem vīdī tum cum in Galliā eram,
I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul.

2. Caesar in eōs impetum fēcit cum pācem peterent, Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace.

3. Hoc erat difficile cum paucī sine vulneribus essent, this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds.

4. Cum prīmī ōrdinēs fūgissent, tamen reliquī fortiter cōnsistēbant, though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood their ground.

a. The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf. §389.a). When the cum clause states a fact and simply fixes the time at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is used. So, in the first example, cum in Galliā eram fixes the time when I saw Cæsar.

b. On the other hand, when the cum clause describes the circumstances under which the main act took place, the subjunctive mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states that Cæsar made an attack, and the cum clause describes the circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of time is also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of description. Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of cause and we translate cum by since; sometimes it denotes concession and cum is translated although.

§396. RULE. Constructions with Cum. The conjunction cum means when, since, or although. It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means when and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place.

NOTE. Cum in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative.

§397. Note the following sentences:

1. Oppidum erat parvum magnitūdine sed magnum multitūdine hominum, the town was small in size but great in population.

2. Homō erat corpore īnfīrmus sed validus animō, the man was weak in body but strong in courage.

a. Observe that magnitūdine, multitūdine, corpore, and animō tell in what respect something is true. The relation is one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the ablative of specification.

§398. RULE. Ablative of Specification. The ablative is used to denote in what respect something is true.

§399. IDIOMS

aliquem certiōrem facere, to inform some one (lit. to make some one more certain) certior fierī, to be informed (lit. to be made more certain) iter dare, to give a right of way, allow to pass obsidēs inter sē dare, to give hostages to each other

Latin into English (D'Ooge LXX)

153
When the Helvetii had set out from home in the time of our fathers, they had put the consul's army to flight.
154
When Caesar came into Gaul, the Helvetii were seeking other lands.
155
Although Caesar was in nearer Gaul, still he was being informed of the plans of the Helvetii.
156
Since the Helvetii were most famous in war, Caesar refused to grant a passage through the province.
157
When the lieutenant had heard these things, he informed Caesar.
158
Since the chiefs were giving hostages among themselves, the Romans prepared for war.
159
Caesar, when this had been announced, hastens to set out from the city.
160
Not even in courage were the Gauls equal to the Germans.
161
Caesar was weak neither in body nor in mind.
162
That war began at the time when Caesar was consul.

English into Latin (D'Ooge LXX)

163
That battle was fought at the time when (tum cum) I was at Rome.
164
Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did not retreat.
165
When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy returned home.
166
Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other, we shall inform Cæsar.
167
The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in language and laws.

The Rival Centurions (Lentulus LXX)

168
In that camp there were two centurions, most brave men, T. Pullo and L. Vorenus, neither of whom was willing to yield to the other in courage.
169
Between them for many years now a bitter rivalry had been carried on.
170
Then at last an end was made of the dispute in this way.
171
On the third day after Publius arrived, the enemy, having collected larger forces, made a most fierce attack on the camp.
172
Then Pullo, when the Romans seemed rather slow, said, "Why do you hesitate, Vorenus?
173
What more favorable opportunity are you waiting for?
174
This day will decide about our courage."
175
When he had said this, he advanced outside the fortifications and rushed into that part of the enemy which seemed thickest.
176
Nor indeed does Vorenus then keep himself within the rampart, but follows Pullo.
177
Then Pullo hurls his spear at the enemy and pierces one of the multitude who is running forward.

īnfēnsum: hostile, from infensus
contrōversiae: dispute, quarrel, from controversia
commodiōrem: suitable, fit, from commodus
inrūpit: burst in, break in, from inrumpo
Pullōnem: chicken, young hen
prōcurrentem: run forward, from procurro

178
The enemy protect this man, struck and lifeless, with their shields, and all hurl their weapons at Pullo.
179
His shield is pierced through and a weapon is lodged in his belt.
180
This accident turns aside his scabbard and delays his right hand as he tries to draw his sword.
181
The enemy surround him thus hampered.
182
Then indeed Vorenus, though he is his rival, still gives him help in his trouble.
183
To him at once the whole multitude turns from Pullo.
184
Vorenus fights hand to hand with his sword, and, having killed one, drives the rest back a little.
185
But pressing on too eagerly, the unlucky man, his foot slipping, falls.
186
To him in turn, surrounded, Pullo gives help, and both unharmed, having killed several, withdraw within the fortifications with the greatest praise.
187
Thus of the two rivals each gave help to the other, and no one could judge concerning their courage.

percussum: pierced, from percussus
prōtegunt: cover, protect, from protego
trānsfīgitur: transfix, from transfigo
balteō: belt, sword belt, from balteus
dēfīgitur: fasten, fix, from defigo
circumsistunt: stand around, surround, from circumsisto
cōnfestim: immediately
Pullōne: chicken, young hen, from Pullus

Vocabulary Review: The Gerund and Gerundive: The Predicate Genitive (D'Ooge LXXI)

The gerund has the missing cases

Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit means "By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory."

Latin cannot use the infinitive for overcoming here because the infinitive has no ablative form.

A gerund is a Latin verbal noun with the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative forms missing from the infinitive.

Superandō is ablative of means: by overcoming.

The four case forms

Ad audiendum vēnērunt uses the accusative audiendum after ad.

Audiendī causā vēnērunt uses the genitive audiendī before causā.

The forms audiendī, audiendō, audiendum, audiendō correspond to the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative.

Conj. IV

The gerundive replaces the gerund

Cōnsilium gerendī bellum means "the plan of waging war." Gerendī is a gerund, and bellum is its direct object.

Cōnsilium bellī gerendī means "the plan of the war to be waged." Gerendī is a gerundive agreeing with bellī.

Latin generally replaces a gerund with a direct object by a gerundive agreeing with that noun.

The exceptions are the genitive and ablative without a preposition, though the gerundive remains more usual.

Two constructions state purpose

Ad audiendum vēnērunt and Audiendī causā vēnērunt both mean "They came to hear."

Ad urbem videndam vēnērunt and Urbis videndae causā vēnērunt both mean "They came to see the city."

Purpose uses ad with the accusative, or the genitive followed by causā.

The purpose table sets both constructions beside their gerundive forms.

Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose

188
By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory
189
the plan of waging war
190
the plan of the war to be waged
191
They came to hear
192
They came to hear
193
They came to see the city
194
They came to see the city
195
They came to hear
196
They came to see the city
197
Galba’s horse

D'Ooge, Latin for Beginners (1911), Lesson LXXI, §§401-410

§401. Review the word lists in §§510, 511.

§402. The Gerund. Suppose we had to translate the sentence

By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory

We can see that overcoming here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in -ing, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the gerund, declined as a neuter of the second declension in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun overcoming, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows:
[1] Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an accusative.

Nom.    superāre, overcoming, to overcome     INFINITIVE
Gen.    superandī, of overcoming              }
Dat.    superandō,  for overcoming            }
Acc.    superandum, overcoming                } GERUND
Abl.    superandō, by overcoming              }

Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin

Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit

§403. The gerund[2] is formed by adding -ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō, to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below:
[2] The gerund is the neuter singular of the future passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation. (Cf. §374.d.)

PARADIGM OF THE GERUND

        CONJ. I   CONJ. II   CONJ. III              CONJ. IV
Gen.    amandī    monendī    regendī    capiendī    audiendī
Dat.    amandō    monendō    regendō    capiendō    audiendō
Acc.    amandum   monendum   regendum   capiendum   audiendum
Abl.    amandō    monendō    regendō    capiendō    audiendō

a. Give the gerund of cūrō, dēleō, sūmō, iaciō, veniō.

b. Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see §493). Give the gerund of cōnor, vereor, sequor, patior, partior.

§404. The Gerundive. The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate the plan of waging war, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say cōnsilium gerendī bellum; or we may use the gerundive and say cōnsilium bellī gerendī, which means, literally, the plan of the war to be waged, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it.

§405. Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive:

        GERUND                         GERUNDIVE
Gen. Spēs faciendī pācem            Spēs faciendae pācis
Dat. Locus idōneus pugnandō         Locus idōneus castrīs pōnendīs
         A place suitable for          A place suitable for
            fighting                      pitching camp
Acc. Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendum Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendōs
                                           hostīs
         He sent horsemen to pursue     He sent horsemen to pursue
                                           the enemy
Abl. Nārrandō fābulās magister     Nārrandīs fābulīs magister
          puerīs placuit                puerīs placuit
         The teacher pleased the       The teacher pleased the
            boys by telling stories       boys by telling stories

a. We observe

(1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective. (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object. (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun.

§406. RULE. Gerund and Gerundive.

1. The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns.

2. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual.

§407. RULE. Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose. The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with ad, or the genitive with causā[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose.
[3] causā always follows the genitive.

GERUND                        GERUNDIVE
Ad audiendum vēnērunt or    Ad urbem videndam vēnērunt or
  Audiendī causā vēnērunt       Urbis videndae causā vēnērunt
  They came to hear             They came to see the city

NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,--vēnērunt ut audīrent; vēnērunt ut urbem vidērent. In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common.

§408. We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, equus Galbae, Galba’s horse. If, now, we wish to express the idea the horse is Galba’s, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, equus est Galbae. Hence this is called the predicate genitive.

§409. RULE. Predicate Genitive. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of sum, and is then called the predicate genitive.

§410. IDIOMS

alīcui negōtium dare, to employ someone
  (lit. to give business to some one)
novīs rēbus studēre, to be eager for a revolution
  (lit. to be eager for new things)
reī mīlitāris perītissimus, very skillful in the art of war
sē suaque omnia, themselves and all their possessions

198
the horse is Galba's
199
to employ someone (lit. to give business to some one)
200
to be eager for a revolution (lit. to be eager for new things)
201
very skillful in the art of war
202
themselves and all their possessions

Latin into English (D'Ooge LXXI)

203
When Caesar was waging war in Gaul, he especially favored the soldiers of the tenth legion because they were most skilled in military affairs.
204
He gave the allies the task of attending to the grain supply.
205
The ambassadors came not only for the sake of hearing but also for the sake of speaking.
206
The commander ordered the scouts to find a place suitable for fortifying.
207
Lately these tribes were eager for revolution; soon I shall persuade them to surrender themselves and all their possessions to Caesar.
208
To command is the queen's part, and to obey is the multitude's.
209
When this battle had been fought, certain of the enemy came to seek peace.
210
There were some who were unwilling to hand over their arms.
211
The enemy advanced so quickly that no time was given for throwing spears at the enemy.
212
Time was given neither for taking up arms nor for seeking aid.

mūnindō: fortify

English into Latin (D'Ooge LXXI)

213
These ornaments [6]belong to Cornelia.
214
Men very skillful in the art of war were sent [7]to capture the town.
215
The scouts found a hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river.
216
Soon the cavalry will come [8]to seek supplies.
217
The mind of the Gauls is eager for revolution and for undertaking wars.
218
To lead the line of battle [8]belongs to the general.
219
[10]Whom shall we employ to look after the grain supply?

The Enemy Besieging the Camp Are Repulsed (Lentulus LXXI)

220
When the fighting had now gone on for six hours, and not only strength but also weapons were failing the Romans, and the enemy were pressing on more fiercely and had begun to cut down the rampart and fill up the ditch, Caesar, a man most skilled in military affairs, commanded his men to break off the battle for a little while and, when the signal was given, to burst out of the camp. What they were ordered they do, and suddenly burst out from all the gates.
221
And so quickly did the soldiers charge, and so near were the enemy, that no room was given for hurling spears.
222
And so, the spears being thrown aside, the fighting was hand to hand with swords.
223
Long and boldly the enemy resisted, and in their last hope of safety showed such courage that on the right wing they pressed the Roman line hard with the multitude of their men. When the commander had noticed this, he sent the young Publius with the cavalry to give help to those in trouble.
224
The enemy could not withstand his attack, and all turned their backs.
225
When they had been put to flight, Publius pursued them all the way to the river Rhine, which was five miles from that place.
226
There a few found safety for themselves.
227
When all the rest had been killed, Publius and the horsemen withdrew into camp.
228
When the neighboring tribes had been informed of this disaster, they sent ambassadors to Caesar and surrendered themselves and all their possessions.

suōrum: his men, his friends, from suum